The Patriotic War of 1812, the reasons for which were to dominate Napoleon's desire to dominate around the world, capturing all states, became a significant milestone in the history of our country. At that time, independence continued to maintain independence from all European countries and England. Special irritation, Napoleon experienced in relation to the Russian state, continuing to counteract the expansion of its aggression and systematically violate
Entering the confrontation with the French, Russia performed the intercession of the monarchical states of Europe.
War was preparing from 1810. Russia and France understood that military actions are inevitable.
The French emperor introduced the troops in creating wearing weapons there. Russia felt a threat and began to increase the number of army in the Western provinces.
The Patriotic War of 1812 began by the invasion of Napoleon on June 12. The 600 thousand french army forced Neman.
At the same time, the Russian government has developed an invader confrontation plan. Created his theoretical Ful. According to the plan, the entire Russian army was composed of three parts. The commander was chosen by Bagration, Tormasov, Barclay de Tolly. Under the suggestion of Fula, the Russian troops were to retreat to the fortified position of the systematic and, having connected, to repel the French on the French. However, the Patriotic War of 1812 began to develop differently. The Russian army retreated, and Napoleon approached Moscow. Despite the resistance of the Russians, the French soon turned out to be near the capital.
The situation that began to develop, demanded immediate action. The post of commander-in-chief of Russian troops took Kutuzov on August 20.
The general battle happened on August 26 below the village of Battle). This battle was the most bloody daytime fight in the history of the country. There was no winner in this battle. But there were no losers too. However, appreciating the situation, Kutuzov after the battle decides to retreat. It was decided to give Moscow without a fight. All residents were bred from the capital, and the city itself was burned.
September 2, Napoleonic soldiers entered Moscow. The commander-in-chief of the French assumed that Muscovites would bring keys from the city. But the city was burned, all barns were burned with ammunition and the province.
The next battle occurred under Maloyaroslavets. Fierce fights were conducted, during which the French army drown. Napoleon had to retreat the same expensive on which he came (in the old Smolensk).
The following battles were under the red, Vyazma, next to the crossing through Berezin. The Russian army kicked the French from their land. Thus, the Napoleonic invasion of Russia ended.
The Patriotic War of 1812 ended December 23, which Alexander 1 was signed by Manifesto. However, the Napoleonic campaign continued. Battles were conducted until 1814.
Patriotic War 1812. Results
Military actions at that time became Russia. This war caused a surge in the national consciousness of the Russian people. In battle with Napoleon, absolutely all population participated, regardless of age.
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 confirmed Russian heroism and courage. This battle presented the history of the Great People: Kutuzov, Raevsky, Bagration, Tormasov and other whose names forever in history. The war with the Napoleonic army was the brightest example of the sacrifice of the people in the name of the salvation of his homeland.
Russia's war for freedom and independence against the aggression of France and its allies.
It was due to the deep political contradictions between France of the emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte, striving for European domination, and the Russian Empire, opposed its political and territorial claims.
From France, the war was coalition. Only the Rhine Union set 150 thousand people to the Napoleonic army. 8 army corps were compiled from foreign contingents. In the Great Army there were about 72 thousand Poles, over 36 thousand Prussians, about 31 thousand Austrians, a significant number of representatives of other European states. The total number of the French army was about 1,200 thousand people. More than half it was intended to invade Russia.
By 1.6.1812 Napoleonic invasion forces included the Guard Imperial, 12 infantry buildings, the cavalry reserve (4 corps), artillery and engineering parks - only 678 thousand people and about 2.8 thousand guns.
As a bridgehead for an attack, Napoleon I used the Duchy of Warsaw. Its strategic plan was to defeat the main forces of the Russian army in the general battle in the general battle, to master Moscow and impose a peace treaty on the terms of France in the Russian Empire. The invasion forces of the enemy were deployed in 2 echelon. The 1st echelon consisted of 3 groups (only 444 thousand people, 940 guns), located between the rivers Neman and Vistula. The 1st grouping (the troops of the left wing, 218 thousand people, 527 guns) under the direct command of Napoleon I focused on the turn of Elbing (now Elblag), Thorn (now Torun) for the offensive through Kownas (now Kaunas) for Wilni (now Vilnius) . The 2nd grouping (gene. E. Bogarne; 82 thousand people, 208 guns) was intended for the offensive in the strip between Grodno and Coveno with the aim of separating the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies. 3rd grouping (under the commands. Napoleon's brother I - J. Bonaparte; the troops of the right wing, 78 thousand people, 159 guns) had a task move from Warsaw to grodno to delay the Russian 2nd Western army to facilitate the onset of the main forces . These troops were to surround and destroy the Russian 1st and 2nd Western army in parts. On the left wing, the invasion of the 1st grouping of the troops provided the Prussian building (32 thousand people) Marshal J. McDonald. At the right wing, the invasion of the 3rd group of troops was provided by the Austrian Corps (34 thousand people) Field Marshal K. Schwarzenberg. In the rear, between the rivers of Vistula and Oder, the troops of the 2nd echelon remained (170 thousand people, 432 guns) and the reserve (Marshal P. P. Ezhero Corps and other troops).
The Russian Empire, after a number of anti-Napoleon wars, for the beginning of the Patriotic War remained in international isolation, experiencing financial and economic difficulties. In two prevailed years, its costs for the needs of the army amounted to more than half of the state budget. Russian troops from Western borders had about 220 thousand people and 942 guns. They were deployed in 3 groups: the 1st Filed Army (General from Infanteria; 6 infantry, 2 cavalry and 1 Cossack Corps; about 128 thousand people, 558 guns) amounted to the main forces and was located between Russians (now Rings, Lithuania) and Lida; 2nd Western Army (general from infanteria; 2 infantry, 1 cavalry building and 9 Cossack regiments; about 49 thousand people, 216 guns) concentrated between the rivers of Neman and Bug; 3rd Western Army (General from Cavalry A. P. Tormasov; 3 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; 43 thousand people, 168 guns) stationed in the area of \u200b\u200bLutsk. In the area of \u200b\u200bRiga, a separate building was located (18.5 thousand people) Lieutenant General I. N. Essen. Nearest reserves (Lieutenant General Corps of P. I. Meller-Okomelsky and Lieutenant General F. F. Ertel) were located in the areas of Toropets and Mozyr cities. In the south, in Podolia, the Danube Army focused (approx. 30 thousand people) Admiral P. V. Chichagov. The leadership of all armies was carried out by the emperor who was with his main apartment at the 1st Western Army. The commander-in-chief was not appointed, but Barclay de Tolly, being a military minister, had the right to give orders on behalf of the emperor. Russian armies stretched out at the front with a length of over 600 km, and the main forces of the enemy are 300 km. This put Russian troops in a difficult position. By the beginning of the opponent's invasion, Alexander I accepted the plan proposed by the military adviser - Prussist General K. Full. According to his plan, the 1st Western army, retreating from the border, was to hide in a fortified camp, and the 2nd Western army go to the flank and rear to the enemy.
By the nature of military events in the Patriotic War, 2 periods are allocated. The 1st period - from the invasion of the French troops 12 (24) of June to 5 (17) October - includes defensive actions, the flank Tarutinsky march of Russian troops, their preparation for the occurrence and partisan operations on the communications of the enemy. The 2nd period - from the transition of the Russian army to the counteroffensive 6 (18) of October to the defeat of the enemy and the complete liberation of the Russian Earth 14 (26) December.
The pretext of the attack on the Russian empire was alleged violation by Alexander I of the main, according to Napoleon I, the provisions - "to be in the Eternal Union with France and in the war with England", manifested in the sabotage of the Russian Empire of the Continental Blockade. 10 (22) Jun Napoleon I through the ambassador in St. Petersburg, J. A. Loriston officially announced the war of Russia, and 12 (24) JUNE the French army for 4 bridges (Kovno and other cities) began crossing the Neman. Having received the news of the invasion of the French troops, Alexander I attempted to resolve the conflict peaceful way, calling the French Emperor to "bring his troops from the Russian territory." However, Napoleon I rejected this offer.
Under the onslaught of superior enemy forces, the 1st and 2nd Western armies began waste into the depths of the country. The 1st Western Army left Wilna and retreated to the Drying Camp (near Dryss, now Verkhnedvinsk, Belarus), increasing the gap from the 2nd Western Army to 200 km. The main forces of the enemy on June 26 (July 8) rushed into it, taking Minsk and creating a threat to the defeat of the Russian armies one by one. The 1st and 2nd Western armies, intending to connect, moved away from the converging directions: the 1st Western army from Drissa through Polotsk to Vitebsk (for the cover of the St. Petersburg direction, the body of the Lieutenant General was left, from November, General from Infaniderian P. Kh. Wittgenstein), and the 2nd Western army from Slonim to Nesvizh, Bobruisk, Mstislavl.
The war stirred all Russian society: peasants, merchants, differences. By the middle of the summer, self-defense detachments were spuning in the occupied territory to protect their villages from Franz raids. Fuzhairov and Marauders (see Mrauded). Assessing the importance, the Russian military command took measures to expand it and organizational design. For this purpose, army partisan squads based on regular troops were created in the 1st and 2nd Western armies. In addition, according to the manifesto of Emperor Alexander I, from 6 (18) July in Central Russia and the Volga region, a set of folk militia was carried out. Its creation, acquisition, financing and supply was led by a special KF. A significant contribution to the deal against foreign invaders was made by the Orthodox Church, called upon the people to protect their state and religious shrines, which gathered about 2.5 million rubles for the needs of the Russian army (from church treasury and as a result of donations of parishioners).
On July 8 (20), the French ranked the Mogilev and did not give Russian armies to connect in the area of \u200b\u200bOrsha. Only due to the persistent terrigard battles and the maneuver, the Russian army on July 22 (August 3) were connected under Smolensky. By this time, the Vittgenstein's corps moved to the north of Polotsk and, having worked out the enemy forces, weakened his main grouping. The 3rd Western Army after the battle 15 (27) of July in Kobrin, and on July 31 (August 12) under urban (now both cities in the Brest region, Belarus), where he defended the enemy a big damage, defended on the river. Stimple
The beginning of the war upset the strategic plan of Napoleon I. The Great Army lost killed, injured, sick and deserters to 150 thousand people. Its combat capability and discipline began to decline, the occurrence rate slowed down. Napoleon I was forced to 17 (29) July to give an order to stop his army for 7-8 days in the area from Veliak to Mogilev for recreation and waiting for the approach of reserves and rear. Submitting to the will of Alexander I, demanding active actions, the Military Council of the 1st and 2nd Western armies decided to take advantage of the dismissal position of the enemy and break the front of his main forces to Kontrudar in the direction of Rudnoye and Porechye (now the city of Demidov). On July 26 (August 7), Russian troops began counteroffensive, but because of a bad organization and inconsistency, it did not bring the expected results. Fighting under the orets and pores of battles Napoleon I used for a sudden crossing of his troops through the Dnieper, threatening to take Smolensk. The troops of the 1st and 2nd Western armies began a departure to Smolensk, so that the enemy would go to the Moscow road before. During the Smolensk battle of 1812, Russian armies of active defense and skillful maneuver reserves were avoided by Napoleon I general battles under unprofitable conditions and on the night of 6 (18) to move away to Dorogoguzh. The enemy continued to adopt Moscow.
The duration of the retreat caused Ropot among soldiers and officers of the Russian army, universal discontent in Russian society. The departure from Smolensk exacerbated the hostility between P. I. Bagration and M. B. Barclay de Tolly. This forced Alexander I to establish the position of Commander-in-Chief by all the current Russian armies and to appoint generals from infanteria to her (from 19 (31) August General-Feldmarshal) M. I. Kutuzov - Head of St. Petersburg and Moscow Militias. Kutuzov arrived in the army of 17 (29) August and accepted the main command.
Finding the position of Tsarev Zahnikov (now the village of the Vyazemsky district of the Smolensk region), where Barclay de Tolly 19 (31) of August intended to give the enemy the battle, disadvantageous, and the forces of the army was not enough, Kutuzov divered the troops to several transitions to the east and stopped in front of Mozhaisk, at the village Borodino, on the field, allowed to find troops profitably and overlap the old and new Smolensk roads. Arriving reserves under the command of General from Infanteria, Moscow and Smolensk militia made it possible to bring the strength of the Russian army to 132 thousand people and 624 guns. Napoleon I had about 135 thousand people and 587 tools. None of the parties reached its goals: Napoleon I could not defeat the Russian army, Kutuzov - to block the path of the Great Army to Moscow. Napoleonic army, losing about 50 thousand people (in French data, over 30 thousand people) and most of the cavalry, turned out to be seriously weakened. Kutuzov, having received information about the losses of the Russian army (44 thousand people), refused to continue the battle and gave the order to retreat.
Departing to Moscow, he hoped to partly fill the losses incurred and give a new battle. But the L. L. L. L. Bennigsen's position near the walls of Moscow was extremely disadvantaged by General from Cavalry. Taking the fact that the first actions of the partisans showed high efficiency, Kutuzov ordered them to control them under the control of the main headquarters of the army, putting the leadership of them on the duty officer of the General Staff Gen. P. P. Konovnitsa. At the military council in the village of Fili (now in the center of Moscow), 1 (13) of September, Kutuzov ordered to leave Moscow without a fight. Together with the troops from the city, most of the population left. On the very first day of the French joining Moscow, fires began to 8 (20) September and devastating city. While the French in Moscow, partisan detachments were surrounded by an almost solid moving ring, not allowing the forage of the enemy to remove 15-30 km from him. The most active were the actions of army partisan detachments, I. S. Dorokhov, A. N. Salavin and A. S. Figner.
Leaving Moscow, Russian troops were moved along the Ryazan Road. Passing 30 km, they crossed the Moscow river and turned to the West. Then the forced march passed to the Tula Road and 6 (18) September focused in the area of \u200b\u200bPodolsk. After 3 days, they were already on the Kaluga road and 9 (21) September stopped the camp at the village of Red Pahra (from 1.7.2012 in Moscow). Having completed 2 more transitions, the Russian troops on September 21 (October 3) focused on Dervni Tarutino (now the village of Zhukovsky district of the Kaluga region). As a result of a skillfully organized and march-maneuver, they broke away from the enemy and occupied a favorable position for counteroffensive.
The active participation of the population in the partisan movement turned the war from the confrontation of regular armies to the War of Nationally. The main forces of the Great Army and all its communications from Moscow to Smolensk were under threat of blows of Russian troops. The French lost their freedom of maneuver and activity in action. For them, the ways were closed in the province south of Moscow, not broken by the war. Cutuzov's "Small War," even more complicated the position of the enemy. The bold operations of the army and peasant partisan detachments violated the supply of French troops. Realizing the critical position, Napoleon I sent General J. Loriston in the bid of the Russian commander-in-chief with peaceful suggestions addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected them, stating that the war is just beginning and will not cease to complete the enemy from Russia.
The Russian army located in the Tarutinsky camp reliably covered the south of the country: Kaluga with military reserves concentrated there, Tulu and Bryansk with weapons and foundry plants. At the same time, reliable communications with the 3rd West and Danube armies were ensured. In the Tarutinsky camp, troops were reorganized, retrofitted (their number was brought to 120 thousand people), equipped with armament, ammunition and food. Artillery was now 2 times more than the enemy, the cavalry was superior in numbers by 3.5 times. The provincial militia numbered 100 thousand people. They covered Moscow by a semicircle along the line Klin, Kolomna, Aleksin. Under Tarutin, M. I. Kutuzov developed a plan of the environment and defeat of the Great Army in the Machinery of the Western Dvina and Dnieper by the main forces of the current army, the Danube Army P. V. Chichagov and the Corps of P. H. Wittgenstein.
The first blow was inflicted 6 (18) October on the avant-garde of the French army on the ink river (Tarutinsky battle 1812). Marshal's troops I. Murata lost 2.5 thousand killed and 2 thousand prisoners in this battle. Napoleon I was forced to leave Moscow 7 (19) to leave Moscow, 10 (22) of October in her advanced detachments of Russian troops. The French lost about 5 thousand people and began to retreat on the razlandy of the old Smolensk road. Tarutinsky fight and battle near Maloyaroslavet marked the root fracture in the war. The strategic initiative finally passed into the hands of the Russian command. The fighting of Russian troops and partisans have become active since this time and included such methods of armed struggle as parallel persecution and the environment of enemy troops. The persecution was carried out in several directions: the north of the Smolensk road acted a detachment of Major General P. V. Golenishchev-Kutuzov; Along the Smolensk road - the Cossack shelves of the general from the cavalry; South Smolensk Road - Avangard M. A. Miloradovich and the main forces of the Russian army. Outping the opponent's arjergard under Vyazma, the Russian troops on October 22 (November 3) defeated him - the French lost about 8.5 thousand people killed, wounded and prisoners, then in the battles of the road, under the shit, in the village of Lyakhovo (now the Glinsky district of Smolensk Areas) - more than 10 thousand people.
The surviving part of the Napoleonic army retreated to Smolensk, but there was no food supply and reserves there. Napoleon I began to hastily dug my troops further. But in the battles under the red, and then under the Molodechno, Russian troops defeated the French. Scattered parts of the enemy went away to the river on the way to Borisov. There is a connection with the body of P. H. Wittgenstein approached the 3rd Western Army. Her troops 4 (16) of November occupied Minsk, and 9 (21) November, the Army P. V. Chichagov went to Borisov and after the fight with the detachment of General Ya. H. Dombrovsky took the city and the right bank of Berezia. The Vittgenstein Corps after a stubborn battle with the French corps of Marshal L. Saint-Sira 8 (20) of October was seized by Polotsk. Crouching through Western Dvina, Russian troops occupied the lepel (now the Vitebsk region, Belarus) and defeated the French with cups. With the approach of the Russian troops to Berezine in the Borisov district, the "bag" was formed, in which the retreating French troops were surrounded. However, the indecision of Wittgenstein and Chichagov's mistakes gave the opportunity to Napoleon I prepare crossing over Berezin and avoid the complete destruction of his army. Reaching Smorgon (now the Grodno region, Belarus), November 23 (December 5) Napoleon I left for Paris, and the remnants of his army were almost completely destroyed.
Russian troops 14 (26) December were taken by Biastok and Brest-Litovsk (now Brest), completing the liberation of the territory of the Russian Empire. M. I. Kutuzov December 21, 1812 (January 2, 1813) Troops congratulated the troops in the army with an expulsion of the enemy from the country's limits and called on "to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields."
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 retained Russia's independence, and the defeat of the Great Army, not only a crushing blow to the military power of Napoleonic France, but also played a decisive role in the liberation of a number of European states from the French expansion, strengthened the liberation struggle of the Spanish people and others. As a result of the Russian army 1813 -14 and the liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe collapsed Napoleonic Empire. The victory in the Patriotic War at the same time was used to strengthen autocracy both in the Russian Empire and in Europe. Alexander I was headed by the Holy Union created by European monarchs, whose activities were heading for the suppression of the revolutionary, republican and liberation movement in Europe. Napoleonic army lost more than 500 thousand people in Russia, all the cavalry and almost all artillery (only the buildings of J. McDonald and K. Schwartenberg survived); Russian troops are about 300 thousand people.
The domestic war of 1812 is distinguished by a large spatial sweep, tension, a variety of strategic and tactical forms of armed struggle. Napoleon I, superior to the military art of all European armies of that time, failed in a collision with the Russian army. The Russian strategy surpassed the Napoleonic strategy designed for a short-term campaign. M. I. Kutuzov skillfully used the national character of war and, given the political and strategic factors, implemented his plan to combat the Napoleonic army. The experience of the Patriotic War contributed to the consolidation of the tactics of columns and looping in the actions of the troops, an increase in the role of targeted fire, improving the interaction of infantry, cavalry and artillery; The form of the organization of military compounds - divisions and hulls was firmly entrenched. The reserve has become an integral part of the combat order, the role of artillery in battle has increased.
Patriotic War 1812 occupies an important place in the history of Russia. She demonstrated the unity of all classes in the fight against foreign. aggression, was the most important factor in the formation of a self-consciousness of Rus. People. Under the influence of victory over Napoleon, the ideology of the Decembrists began to develop. The experience of war received a generalization in the works of domestic and foreign military historians, the patriotism of the Russian people and the army inspired the work of Russian writers, artists, composers. With the victory in the Patriotic War, the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, numerous churches throughout the Russian Empire; Military trophies were kept in the Kazan Cathedral. The events of the Patriotic War are imprinted in numerous monuments on the Borodino field, in Maloyaroslavets and Tarutin, are reflected in the triumphal arches in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the pictures of the Winter Palace, the Panorama "Borodino battle" in Moscow, etc. On the Patriotic War, huge memoir literature remained.
Additional literature:
Ahsharumov D.I. Description of the war of 1812 SPb., 1819;
Buturlin DP The history of the invasion of the emperor Napoleon to Russia in 1812. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg., 1837-1838. Part 1-2;
Okunev N.A. The argument of large hostilities, battles and battles that took place at the invasion of Russia in 1812. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1841;
Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky A.I. Description of the Patriotic War of 1812 3rd ed. St. Petersburg, 1843;
Bogdanovich M.I. History of the Patriotic War of 1812 on reliable sources. St. Petersburg., 1859-1860. T. 1-3;
Patriotic War 1812: Materials of the military-scientist archive. Departure 1-2. St. Petersburg., 1900-1914. [Vol. 1-22];
Patriotic War and Russian Society, 1812-1912. M., 1911-1912. T. 1-7;
Great Patriotic War: 1812 St. Petersburg., 1912;
Zhilin P.A. The counteroffensiveness of the Russian army in 1812 2nd ed. M., 1953;
he is The death of the Napoleonic army in Russia. 2nd ed. M., 1974;
he is Patriotic War of 1812 3rd ed. M., 1988;
M. I. Kutuzov: [Documents and Materials]. M., 1954-1955. T. 4. Part 1-2;
1812: Sat. Articles. M., 1962;
Babkin V.I. People's militia in the Patriotic War of 1812 M., 1962;
Breakless L.G. Patriotic War of 1812 M., 1962;
Korneychik E.I. Belarusian people in the Patriotic War of 1812 Minsk, 1962;
Sirotkin V.G. Duel two diplomacy: Russia and France in 1801-1812. M., 1966;
he is Alexander First and Napoleon: Duel on the eve of war. M., 2012;
Tartakovsky A.G. 1812 and Russian memoiristics: the experience of the source studies. M., 1980;
ABALICHIN B.S., Dunaevsky V.A. 1812 at the crossroads of the opinions of Soviet historians, 1917-1987. M., 1990;
1812 Memories of the Warriors of the Russian Army: from the meeting of the department of written sources of the State Historical Museum. M., 1991;
Tarla E.V. Napoleon's invasion to Russia, 1812 M., 1992;
he is 1812: Select. Works. M., 1994;
1812 in the memoirs of contemporaries. M., 1995;
Glyaev Yu.N., K.T. Feldmarshal Kutuzov: [Historical and biographical essay]. M., 1995;
Russian Archive: History of Fatherland in testimonies and documents of the XVIII-XX centuries. M., 1996. Issue 7;
Kirchesen F. Napoleon I: 2 t. M., 1997;
Chandler D. Napoleon Military Campaigns: Triumph and Tragedy of the Conqueror. M., 1999;
Sokolov O.V. Army of Napoleon. St. Petersburg, 1999;
Shein I.A. War of 1812 in domestic historiography. M., 2002.
Accession of Georgia. Entered into the throne after the murder of Paul, his son Alexander I participated in a conspiracy against the Father. Alexander I continued to be launched by Peter I and Catherine II conquest of the Black Sea coast and the rich land of the Caucasus. First of all, he strengthened in Georgia.
In Georgia, as in the then Russia, landlords dominated. Peasants, not flexing their backs, worked on them from morning to evening. There were peasants in sacla stones folded from stones, in dugouts. Most of the crop of fields and gardens they took their gentlemen - landowners. The rulers of the neighboring states (Turkey and Iran) made devastating raids on rich Georgian lands and even more ruined the peasants.
After one attack, when Iranians have captured more than 10 thousand Georgians, the king of Georgia turned to Pavlu I. In the capital of Georgia, Tbilisi, tsarist troops were introduced; In 1801, Georgia finally joined Russia. The ruinous raids of the Iranian kings on Georgia ceased.
Georgia has become the ownership of Tsarist Russia. In courts and other institutions, Russian officials were planted, they demanded that the petitioners spoke in all institutions of Georgia only in Russian, which the Georgian people did not know. The serfdom in Georgia continued to exist. Brutally oppressed Georgian peasants raised the uprisings against their landowners and royal officials, but with the help of Georgian princes and the nobles, the royal troops were mercilessly suppressed. Relying on the kobor-destroyers of Georgia, Alexander I firmly strengthened in the Transcaucasus.
Creation of Finland and Bessarabia. In 1805, Alexander I, restoring the Military Union with England, began the war with Napoleon 1, who announced himself with the emperor of France.
Napoleon broke the troops of Alexander I and demanded that Russia cease to stop trading with the main opponent of France - England. Defeated Alexander I had to agree. Napoleon promised to fight the Russian emperor to fight with Sweden and Turkey for it. Napoleon himself submitted to the domination of France almost all the peoples of Western Europe.
Soon Alexander I announced the War of Sweden and quickly took Finland's troops who belonged to Swedes. The Russian army moved in winter on the ice of the Botnik Bay and threatened the capital of Sweden. The Swedish king was supposed to enter into 1809 and agreed to the transfer of Russia Finland.
After 3 years, Alexander I managed to conquer in Turkey who captured by her Bessarabia - the area between the Dniester and the Prut.
Patriotic Warrior 1812. But the Union of Russia and France continued not long. The landowners and merchants were very interested in free trade with England and demanded the tsar gap with Napoleon. The nobles were also afraid that under the influence of bourgeois france, where the serfdom was destroyed, their dominance in Russia will be weakened. Alexander I gave way. Trading with England resumed.
Then Napoleon with a huge army, more than 500 thousand people, attacked Russia in the summer 1812 of the year. Russian troops were only about 200 thousand people. They retired, destroying all the reserves of food and equipment along the way. Soon Napoleon captured Lithuania and Belorussia and moved to Moscow. Napoleon's invasion of Russia raised the Russian people to the Patriotic War with invaders; The peasants began a partisan war.
In the fight against Napoleon, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Tatars, Bashkirs and other peoples of our country participated in the fight against Napoleon.
At the head of the Russian army, a favorite student Suvorov, the great commander Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov.
At the end of August, near Moscow, the village of Borodino had the largest battle. Russian troops with an enemy fought stubbornly, who ruin their country. More than 50 thousand Russians went up in this bloody battle, but the power of the Russian army was not broken.
The losses of the French were huge, but the advantage remained on their side. Kutuzov decided to hand over Moscow Napoleon without a fight and retreat to keep the army.
The French occupied Moscow. Large fires began in the city. Many houses burned down. In Moscow, the French remained without products.
Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov (1745-1813).
Zima is approaching. The French in Moscow was impossible to consist. Napoleon with the army began to retreat on the road, ruined when hiking to Moscow. His attempt to retreat to others did not succeed - other roads were busy with Russian troops.
Kutuzov has relentlessly pursued the retreating troops of Napoleon. The partisans attacked and destroyed separate French troops. When crossing through r. Berezina Napoleon barely escaped the complete defeat of the remnants of his army and personal captivity. From all the vast army, Napoleon survived and returned from Russia abroad only 30 thousand people.
In 1812. The retreat of the French army. From the painting of spitter.
Napoleon collected a new army and began to continue the war. But now Prussia, Austria, England and Sweden appeared against him in the Union with Russia. Under the city of Leipzig, they broke Napoleon. The Allies switched to France's border and occupied Paris.
Winners of Napoleon restored the power of old French kings and princes in France. The French began to edit the brother of the king, executed during the revolution. Napoleon was referred to a distant island in the Atlantic Ocean. In all other European countries, conquered before Napoleon, began to manage the kings and princes to be managed.
Alexander I for his struggle with Napoleon allies gave part of Poland with the city of Warsaw.
To fight the revolution in Europe, the Russian king, the Prussian king and the Austrian emperor concluded a reactionary sacred union among themselves. They swore help each other in the fight against popular uprisings. The head of this union was Russian Tsar Alexander I. Tsarist Russia became the gendarme of Europe.
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Napoleonic wars are called combat campaigns against several European coalitions, who led France during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1815). Italian Camping Napoleon 1796-1797 And his Egyptian expedition of 1798-1799 in the concept of "Napoleonic Wars" is usually not included, as they occurred even before the arrival of the Bonaparte to power (1899 coup 1899). Italian hike is part of the revolutionary wars 1792-1799. The Egyptian expedition in different sources is either relate to them or recognized as a separate colonial campaign.
Napoleon in the Council of Five hundred 18 Brother 1799
War of Napoleon with the second coalition
During the coup 18 of Brother (November 9), 1799 and the transition of power in France to the first consul, a citizen Napoleon Bonaparte, the republic was in war with a new (second) European coalition, which was attended by the Russian emperor Paul I, who sent an army to the West under The bosses of Suvorov. France's cases went bad, especially in Italy, where Suvorov, together with the Austrians, won the Tsizalpin Republic, after which in Naples, left by the French, there was a monarchical restoration, accompanied by a bloody terror against France's friends, and then the fall of the republic in Rome was accomplished. Displeased, however, with its allies, mainly Austria, and partly and England, Paul I came out of the coalition and war, and when the first thing that was just established consul Bonaparte let go home Russian prisoners without redemption and re-equipped, the Russian emperor began to even closer with France, very pleased that in this country "the Consulate was replaced in this country." Napoleon Bonaparte himself willingly walked towards rapprochement with Russia: in the essence of them in 1798, the expedition to Egypt was directed against England in its Indian possessions, and in the imagination of the ambitious conqueror, the Franco-Russian campaign on India was played, the same as Later, when the memorable war began in 1812. This combination, however, did not take place, since the spring of 1801 Paul I fell a victim of conspiracy, and the power in Russia passed to his son Alexander I.
Napoleon Bonaparte is the first consul. Picture J. O. D. Engra, 1803-1804
After the exit of Russia from the coalition, Napoleon's war against other European powers continued. The first consul appealed to the sovereigns of England and Austria with an invitation to put an end to the struggle, but in response to him unacceptable conditions for him - restoration Burbon And the return of France to its former borders. In the spring of 1800 Bonaparte personally led the army in Italy and in the summer, after battle of Marrengo, Issued by everything Lombardy, while the other French army took South Germany and began to threaten the Vienna itself. Luneville world 1801. He graduated from War Napoleon with Emperor Franz II and confirmed the conditions for the former Austro-French Treaty ( Campform 1797. G.). Lombardy turned into the Italian Republic, who made his president of the First Consul Bonaparte. And in Italy, and in Germany, a number of change was made in Germany: for example, the Duke of Tuscan (from the surname of the Habsburgs) for the refusal to his duchy received in Germany the principality of the Salzburg Archbishop, and Tuscany called the Kingdom of the Etrurist was transferred to the Duke of Parm (from the Spanish line Bourbon). Most of all the territorial changes were made after this War of Napoleon in Germany, many state trucks of which for the concession of France of the left bank of the Rhine were to receive remuneration due to smaller princes, domineering bishops and abbots, as well as free imperial cities. In Paris, a real bargaining by territorial increments was opened, and the Government of Bonaparte with great success enjoyed the rivalry of German sovereigns to conclude separate contracts with them. It was the beginning of the destruction of the medieval sacred Roman Empire of the German nation, which, however, before, as the heavens said, was neither sacred, nor Roman nor the Empire, but by some chaos from the same number of states how many days a year. Now, at least, they are purely declined, due to the secularization of spiritual principalities and the so-called mediaization - the transformation of immediate (immigate) members of the empire into mediocre (mediate) - different state trifles, such as small counties and imperial cities.
France's war with England ceased only in 1802, when between both states was concluded peace in Amiene. The first consul Napoleon Bonaparte turned then and the glory of a peacemaker after a decade of war, which one had to lead to France: a life consulate was actually awarded for the conclusion of the world. But the war with England would soon resumed, and one of the reasons for this was that Napoleon, not satisfied with the presidency in the Republic of ITALY, established his protectorate also over the Republic of Batava, that is, Holland, quite under the side of England. The renewal of the war occurred in 1803, and the English King of George III, who was at the same time, with the fact that Kurfürst Hannover, lost his generic ownership in Germany. After this war, Bonaparte with England did not stop until 1814.
Napoleon War with the Third Coalition
The war was the favorite thing of the emperor-commander, equal to anyone knows a little at all, and his unauthorized acts, to the number of which should be attributed the killing of the duke of EngienskyThose who caused general indignation in Europe, soon forced other powers to connect against the bold "Corsican rushing". The adoption of the imperial title, the transformation of the Italian Republic to the kingdom, whose submarine itself was Napoleon himself, which was crowned in 1805 in Milan an old iron crown of Lombard kings, the preparation of the Batav Republic to transform one of his brothers, as well as different other actions of Napoleon In relation to other countries there were the reasons for the formation of the third anti-brass coalition against him from England, Russia, Austria, Sweden and the Neapolitan Kingdom, and Napoleon had a rejoice in the future coalition war with alliances with Spain and with South German Princes (Bavaria's sovereigns, Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, etc.), which, thanks to him, significantly increased their possessions by secularization and the media of smaller possessions.
War of the third coalition. Map
In 1805, Napoleon was preparing at Bulon to landing in England, but actually moved his troops to Austria. However, the landing in England and the war on its very territory soon became impossible, due to the extermination of the French fleet of English under the superiors of Admiral Nelson in trafalgar. But the land war of Bonaparte with the third coalition was a number of brilliant victories. In October 1805, on the eve of Trafalgar, surrendered to the surrender Austrian army in UlmIn November, Vienna was taken, on December 2, 1805, in the first anniversary of Napoleon's coronation, the famous "Battle of Three Emperors" occurred at Austerlitz (see the battle of the Austerlitz), which ended with the full victory of Napoleon Bonaparte over the Austro-Russian Army, at which there were also Franz II, and young Alexander I. Throwing the War with the Third Coalition Presburg Mir He deprived the monarchy of the Habsburg of all over Austria, Tyrol and Venice with its area and provided Napoleon the right to widely dispose of Italy and in Germany.
Napoleon triumph. Austerlitz. Artist Sergey Svykain.
War Bonaparte with fourth coalition
Next year, Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III was joined by the enemies of France - thereby the fourth coalition was formed. But the stumps suffered, in October of this year, terrible defeat with yen., after which the German princes, who were in the Union with Prussia, were defeated, and Napoleon took away Berlin first during this war, then Warsaw, belonging to Prussia after the third section of Poland. The assistance provided by Friedrich Wilhelm III III Alexander I was not successful, and in the war of 1807. Russians suffered defeat under Friedland, after which Napoleon occupied Konigsberg. Then the famous Tilzite world took place, who graduated from the fourth coalition war and accompanied by a meeting of Napoleon's Bonaparte and Alexander I in the Pavilion, arranged in the middle of Neman.
War of the fourth coalition. Map
In Tilsit, it was decided to help both sovereigns to help each other, sharing the West and East. Only the intercession of the Russian king before the Terrible Winner saved Prussia from the disappearance after this war from a political map of Europe, but this state was still lost half of his possessions, it was supposed to pay great contribution and took the French garrison for a post.
Reconstruction of Europe after wars with the third and fourth coalitions
After wars with the third and fourth coalitions, the Presburg and Tilzite worlds, Napoleon Bonaparte was the full owner of the West. The Venetian region increased the Italian kingdom, where the vice-king was made by Steyok Napoleon Evgeny Bogarne, and Tuscany was directly attached to the French Empire itself. On the other day, after the Napoleon, Napoleon announced that "the Bourbon dynasty ceased to reign in Naples," and sent to reign there his older brother Joseph (Joseph). The Batava Republic was turned into the Dutch kingdom with the brother of Napoleon Louis (Louis) on the throne. From the regions taken from the Prussia to the west of Elba with the neighboring parts of Hannover and other principalities, the Westphalian kingdom was created, which was another brother Napoleon Bonaparte, Jerome (Zherom), from the former Polish lands of Prussia - Warsaw Duchysent to the sovereign Saxony. Back in 1804, Franz II declared the Imperial Corona of Germany, a former electoral, hereditary heritage of his house, and in 1806 seized Austria from Germany and began to be titled not Roman, but an Austrian emperor. In Germany itself, Napoleon was performed after these wars, a complete shuffling: again, some principalities disappeared, others received the increment of their possessions, especially Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony, erected even in the rank of kingdoms. The Sacred Roman Empire was no longer more, and now the Rhine Union was organized in the Western Germany - under the French Emperor Protector.
The Tilzite world Alexander I was provided by agreement with Bonaparte to increase its possessions on the account of Sweden and Turkey, which he took away, in 1809, Finland, turned into an autonomous principality, in the second - after the Russian-Turkish war, 1806-1812 - Bessarabia included directly into Russia. In addition, Alexander I pledged to attach his empire to the "continental system" of Napoleon, as it was called the cessation of all trade relations with England. New allies were supposed to, in addition, to force to Sweden, Denmark and Portugal, who continued to stand on the side of England. In Sweden, at this time there was a coup: Gustava IV replaced his uncle Karl XIII, and his heir was announced by the French Marshal Bernadot, after which Sweden moved to the side of France, as the Denmark and Denmark after the attack on Her England for the desire to remain neutral. Since Portugal opposed, Napoleon, concluding a union with Spain, announced that the "Braganz House had ceased to reign", and began to conquer this country, which forced her king with the whole family to sail to Brazil.
Beginning of War Napoleon Bonaparte in Spain
It soon reached the queue to Spain to turn into the kingdom of one of the brothers Bonaparte, the Lord of the European West. Contention took place in the Spanish royal family. He managed the state, strictly speaking, the Minister of the Year, the beloved Queen Maria Louise, the wife of a closer and brightless Charles IV, the person is ignorant, short-sighted and happy, who since 1796 completely subordinated to Spain by French politics. The royal couple had the son of Ferdinand, whom the mother and her favorite did not love, and here both sides began to handle complaints to another to Napoleon. Bonaparte is even more closely connected with Spain with France, when he promised the year for his help in the war with Portugal to divide her possession with Spain. In 1808, members of the Royal Family were invited to negotiate in Bayonna, and here the case ended with the deprivation of Ferdinand of his hereditary rights and the renunciation of Charles IV itself from the throne in favor of Napoleon, as the "the only sovereign capable of giving prosperity." The result of the Bayon catastrophe was the translation of the Napletarian king Joseph Bonaparte to the Spanish throne, with the transition of the Neapolitan crown to the son-in-law of Napoleon, Joachim Murata, one of the heroes of 18 Brother's coup. Somewhat earlier in the same 1808, French soldiers took the papal region, and next year she was included in the French Empire with the deprivation of Pope of secular power. The fact is that pope Pei VII., considering yourself an independent state truck, did not follow the instructions of Napoleon. "Your Holiness," once Bonaparte Pope once, "enjoys the rule of power in Rome, but Emperor Rome - I". At the deprivation of power, Pei VII responded by the empty of Napoleon from the Church, for which he was forcibly transported to residence in Savona, and the Cardinals were resettled in Paris. Rome after that was declared the second city of the Empire.
Erfurt date 1808.
In the interval between the wars, in the autumn of 1808, in Erfurt, who Napoleon Bonaparte left directly for himself, as the ownership of France in the heart of Germany, between the Tilzit allies, a famous date was held, accompanied by the congress of the many kings, dominal princes, crown princes, ministers, diplomats and commander . It was a very impressive demonstration and the strength, what Napoleon had in the West, and his friendship with the state truck, who was given to the East. England was invited to begin negotiations on the termination of the war on the basis of preservation of the Contracting What WHO WILL TO WAY at the time of the conclusion of the world, but England rejected this proposal. The Soviet of the Rhine Union held themselves on erfurt congress In front of Napoleon, at exactly, both the Rabolen Troops in front of their master, and for the worst humiliation of Prussia, Bonaparte arranged a hunt for hare on the field of the Iensky battle, inviting Prussian Prince to her, who came to the mitigation of the serious conditions of 1807. Meanwhile, in Spain against the French, the uprising broke out, and in winter from 1808 in 1809 Napoleon was forced to personally go to Madrid.
War of Napoleon with a fifth coalition and his conflict with dad sing VII
Having calculated on the difficulty, which Napoleon met in Spain, the Austrian emperor in 1809 decided to a new war with Bonaparte ( War of the fifth coalition), But the war was unsuccessful again. Napoleon took Vienna and inflicted the Austrians an irreparable defeat when Vagram. By completing this war Schönbrunnsky world Austria again lost several territories divided between Bavaria, the Italian Kingdom and Warsaw Duchy (by the way, it acquired Krakow), and one area, the Adriatic Sea coast, called the name of Illia, became the property of Napoleon's Bonaparte. Together with this, Franz II was supposed to give Napoleon in marriage his daughter Maria Louise. Even earlier, Bonaparte threatened through the members of his last name with some state orders of the Rhine Union, and now he himself thought to marry a real princess, especially since his first wife, Josephine Bogarna, was fruitless, he also wanted to have the heir of his blood. (At first he was woven to the Russian Great Princess, her sister Alexander I, but their mother was resolutely against this marriage). In order to marry with the Austrian princess, Napoleon had to divorce Josephine, but then an obstacle from the Pope, who did not agree to divorce. Bonaparte neglected this and made him the French clergy displaced him with the first wife. This was even more aggravated the relationship between him and Fii VII, who was avenged for the deprivation of secular power, and therefore, by the way, he refused to dedicated to the bishops to persons who the emperor appointed to vacant departments. The emperor's quarrel with dad, by the way, led to the fact that in 1811 Napoleon sat in Paris the Cathedral of French and Italian bishops, which under pressure issued a decree, which entered the Archbishops to handraffer the bishops, if the dad will not devote six months to government candidates. The members of the cathedral who protested against the prisoner of the Pope were planted in the Wensensky Castle (as before the Cardinals, who did not appear on the marriage of Napoleon Bonaparte with Maria Louise, were deprived of their red Ryas, - for which there were black cardinals in the mockery). When Son's son was born from a new marriage from Napoleon, he received the title of Roman King.
The period of the highest power of Napoleon Bonaparte
It was the time of the greatest power of Napoleon Bonaparte, and after the war of the fifth coalition, he continued to continue to completely arbitrarily dispose of Europe. In 1810, he deprived his brother Louis Dutch Crown for non-compliance with the continental system and joined his kingdom directly to his empire; For the same, it was still taken from the legal owners (by the way, the Duke of the Oldenburg, relative of the Russian sovereign) and the German coast of the German Sea is attached to France. France has now been the shore of the German Sea, all Western Germany to the Rhine, some of the Switzerland parts, the entire north-west of Italy and the Adriatic coast; The Northeast of Italy was a special kingdom of Napoleon, and in Naples, Spain and Westphalias reign His son-in-law and two brothers. Switzerland, the Rhine Union, from three sides covered by the ownership of Bonaparte, and Warsaw Great Duchy were under its protectorate. Austria and Prussia were strongly cut off after Napoleonic wars, therefore, between possessions or Napoleon himself, or his vassalov, Russia, from the division with Napoleon, except Finland, had only Belostoksky and the Tarnopol district, separated by Napoleon from Prussia and Austria in 1807 and 1809
Europe in 1807-1810. Map
Napoleon's despotism in Europe was implanious. When, for example, the Nuremberg Palm Palm Palm refused to name the author of the Bonaparte brochure in the greatest humiliation, Bonaparte ordered him to arrest on someone else's territory and to betray the military court who sentenced him to the shooting (which was like a repetition of the episode with the Duke of Engiensky).
On the mainland of Western Europe after Napoleonic wars, everything, so to speak, was inverted upside down: the boundaries are confused; Some old states destroyed and new; Even many geographical names were changed, etc. The secular power of the Pope and the medieval Roman Empire no longer existed, as well as the spiritual principalities of Germany, and its numerous imperial cities, these purely medieval city republics. In the territories that went to France itself, a number of reforms on the French model, the reforms of administrative, judicial, financial, military, school, church, often with the abolition of the lengthy privileges of the nobility, the restriction of the power of the clergy, the destruction of the multitude of monasteries, was performed in the Bonaparte , Introduction of warpness, etc., and so on. One of the wonderful features of the Napoleonic wars era was canceled in many places of the fortress state of the peasants, sometimes immediately after the wars by Bonaparte himself, as it was in Warsaw Duchy at the very reason. Finally, the French Civil Code was introduced outside the French Empire, " Napoleon Code"Who continued to act and after the crash of Napoleon's empire, as it was in the western parts of Germany, where he was in the course of 1900, or as it still takes place in the kingdom of Polish, formed from the Warsaw Great Duchy In 1815, it is necessary to further add that in the period of Napoleonic wars in different countries, the French administrative centralization, distinguished simplicity and harmony, power and speed, and formerly agreed by the Governmental impact on the Governmental impact on the subjects. If the republics of the daughter at the end of the XVIII century. They were arranged in the image and likeness of the then France, their common mother, then now the states that Bonaparte gave to the Office of their brothers, son-in-law and stepper, received representative institutions to be more part of the French sample, that is, with a purely ghostly, decorative character. Such a device was introduced precisely in the kingdoms of Italy, Dutch, Neapolitan, Westphalian, Spanish, etc. In essence, and the most sovereignty of all these political creations of Napoleon was ghostly: one will one will reigned everywhere, and all these state trucks, the relatives of the emperor French and his Vassals were obliged to deliver a lot of money to their Supreme Lord and a lot of soldiers for new wars - no matter how much he demanded.
Parisan war against Napoleon in Spain
The conquered peoples began to serve the goals of a foreign conqueror. While Napoleon was in the wars, only with sovereigns, relying on one army and formerly ready to receive from his hands to increments their possessions, it was easy for him to cope with them; In particular, for example, the Austrian government preferred to lose the province for the province, if only the subjects sat calmly, which the Prussian government had a lot of trouble and the Prussian government before the Iensky defeat. These difficulties began to be created for Napoleon only when the peoples began to rebel and lead a small partisan war against the French. The first example of this was submitted by the Spaniards in 1808, then Tyrolians during the Austrian War of 1809; In an even greater size, this took place in Russia in 1812. Events 1808-1812. In general, showed governments, in which they could have consisted.
The Spaniards, who were the first to submit an example of the People's War (and the resistance of which was helped by England, who did not regret money at the fight against France at all), took Napoleon a lot of worries and hassle: in Spain had to suppress the uprising, to lead a real war, to conquer the country and military power to support the throne of Joseph Bonaparte. The Spaniards even created a general organization to keep their little wars, these famous "G. Guerillas", which we turned into some kind of stranger with Spanish later in some "gwerillas", in the sense of partisan detachments or participants in the war. "Gwerilla" were one; Other presented themselves convened by the temporary government, or the regency in Cadix, under the protection of the English fleet, Cortes, People's Representative Office of the Spanish Nation. They were collected in 1810, and in 1812 they made a famous spanish constitution, very long, liberal and democratic, using the model of the French Constitution 1791 and some features of the medieval constitution of Aragon.
Movement against Bonaparte in Germany. Prussian reformers Gardenberg, Stein and Sharnhorst
Significant fermentation took place among the Germans, who threw a new war to get out of their humiliation. Napoleon knew about it, but quite relied on the devotion to his sovereigns of the Rhine Union and on the weakness of Prussia and Austria after 1807 and 1809, and the oestruck, who costing the life of the glood palm, was to serve as a warning, which will comprehend every German who dared to become The enemy of France. During these years, the hopes of all hostile Bonaparte of the German patriots were assigned to Prussia. This state is so exalted in the second half of the XVIII century. The victories of Friedrich the Great, in after the war of the fourth coalition, abbreviated for a whole half, was in the greatest humiliation, the way out of which was only in internal reforms. Among the ministers of the king Friedrich Wilhelm III People were found, just standing for the need for serious transformations, and Gardenberg and Stein were the most outstanding among them. The first one was a big fan of new French ideas and orders. In 1804-1807 He held the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs and in 1807 he suggested a whole plan of reform: Introduction to Prussia People's Representative Office with strictly, however, by centralized offices on Napoleonic model, the abolition of noble privileges, the liberation of peasants from the serfdom, the destruction of the constraints lying on the industry and trade. Counting Hardenberg with his enemy, - which was actually, - Napoleon demanded that Friedrich Wilhelm III, at the end of the war with him in 1807, so that this minister was given a resignation, and advised to take a matte on his place as a very sensible person, not Knowing that he was also an enemy of France. Baron Stein was previously in Prussia Minister, but did not reveal with the court spheres, and with the king himself, and received a resignation. In contrast to Hardenberg, he was an opponent of administrative centralization and stood for the development of self-government, as in England, with preservation, in well-known framework, prominances, workshops, etc., but it was a man of larger mind than Gardenberg, and found a greater ability To development in the progressive direction as life itself pointed out to him on the need for the destruction of the antiquity, while remaining, however, after all, the opponent of the Napoleonic system, as the society's amateurness wanted. Appointed by the Minister of October 5, 1807, the Stein has already published the 9th day of the same month, who lifted a fortress fortress and allowed the nobility of the nobility lands in Prussia and allowed Nedlanzy. Further, in 1808, he began to fulfill his plan for replacing the bureaucratic management system of local self-government, but managed to give the last only to the cities, the village and the region remained at old orders. He also thought about state representation, but a purely advisory nature. Stein long remained in power: In September 1808, the French official newspaper published his letter intercepted by the police, from which Napoleon Bonaparte learned that the Prussian Minister was very recommended to Germans to follow the example of the Spaniards. After that, and another hostile article in the French government agency, the Minister-Reformed was forced to retire, and in a few times Napoleon even immediately declared him by the enemy of France and the Rhine Union, his estates confiscated and his most subject to arrest, so the Stein had to Run and hide in different cities of Austria, while in 1812 He was not caused to Russia.
After a minor minister, who has changed such a large person, Friedrich Wilhelm III again called for the Gardenberg authority, who, being a supporter of the Napoleonic centralization system, began to transform the Prussian administration in this direction. In 1810, the king in his insistence promised to give his subjects even a national representation, and with the goal of both the development of this issue and the introduction of other reforms in 1810-1812. Convened in Berlin meetings of notables, i.e. representatives of estates for the choice of government. By the same time, more detailed legislation on the repurchase of peasant jones in Prussia applies. It was important for Prussia military P reform made by General Sharnhorstom; According to one of the conditions of the Tilzite world, Prussia could not have more than 42 thousand troops, and so was invented such a system: an universal military service was introduced, but the duration of staying soldiers in the army was strongly reduced, so that, having learning their military business, to take new ones , and trained to enroll in the reserve, so that Prussia could have a very large army in case of need. Finally, during the same years, the University of Gumboldt University in Berlin was founded according to the plan of enlightened and liberal Wilhelm, and the famous philosopher Ficht read his patriotic "speeches to the German nation" under the sounds of the French garrison drums. All these phenomena characterizing the inner life of Prussia after 1807, made this state with the hope of most hostile Napoleon Bonaparte German patriots. At interesting manifestations of the then liberation mood in Prussia, another education should be attributed in 1808. Tuendbunda, or the union of valor, secret society, which included scientists, military, officials and the purpose of which were the revival of Germany, although actually the whole role was not playing. Napoleonic police watched the German patriots, and, for example, the friend of Stein Arndt, the author of the "Spirit of Time" imbued with the national patriotism, was supposed to run from Napoleon's wrath in Sweden, so as not to expose the sad fate of the palm tree.
The national arousal of the Germans against the French began to strengthen from 1809. Starting this year by War with Napoleon, the Austrian government has already directly put her goal of the release of German / Pni from a foreign yoke. In 1809, opposed the French uprisings in Tyrol under the leadership of Andrei Burfer, in Stralsund, who mastered the madly brave Major Schill, in Westphalia, where the Black Legion of Revenge was acted by the Duke of Braunschweigsky, etc., but the rover was executed, Shill Killed in a military fighting, Duke Brunshweagsky had to flee to England. At the same time, at Schönbrunna, Napoleon was made attempted by one young German, a staps, then for it executed. "The fermentation has reached the highest degree, wrote once Napoleon Bonaparte his brother, the King Westfalsky, - the most reckless hopes are accepted and supported; They put themselves for sample Spain, and believe me when the war starts, the country between the Rhine and Oder will be theater of the big uprising, for the extreme despair of peoples who have nothing to lose. " Prediction This was fulfilled after the failure of the campaign to Russia, undertaken by Napoleon in 1812 and the former, on the member of the Minister of Foreign Affairs Talleyran, "Beginning of the end."
Napoleon's relationship Bonaparte with King Alexander I
In Russia, after the death of Paul I, who was thinking about rapprochement with France, the "Days Aleksandrov's excellent began". The young monarch, the pupil of the Republican Lagarpa, almost considered himself the Republican, in any case, the only thing in the whole empire, and in other respects he admitted herself with the "happy exception" on the throne, from the very beginning of his reigning plans for internal reforms built, right at the end ends before the introduction of the Constitution in Russia. In 1805-07 He was in the war with Napoleon, but in Tilsit, they concluded among themselves the Union, and in two years in Erfurt, they brought their friendship in the face of the whole world, although Bonaparte immediately solved in her friend-rival "Byzantine Greek" (and himself, however, Being, according to the review of Pope Pia VII, a comedian). And Russia in those years had his reformer, adopting, like Hardenberg, before Napoleonic France, but much more original. This reformer was the famous Speransky, author of a whole plan of the state transformation of Russia on the basis of representation and separation of the authorities. Alexander I brought him close to himself at the beginning of his reign, but the Speransky began to use a particularly strong influence on his sovereign in the years of convergence of Russia with France after the Tilzite world. By the way, when Alexander I, after the war of the fourth coalition, traveled to Erfurt on a date with Napoleon, among other approximate persons he took and Speransky. But then this outstanding state person has suffered royal disfavor, just at the time, as the relationship between Alexander I and Bonaparte spoiled. It is known that Speransky in 1812 not only was removed from affairs, but he had to go to the link.
Relations between Napoleon and Alexander I spoiled for many reasons, among which the main role was played by the non-compliance with Russia of the continental system in all its rigor, the encouraging of Poles from Bonaparte on the restoration of their former Fatherland, excluding France of possessions from the Oldenburg Duke, who was related to the Russian tsarist surname etc. In 1812, it came to the full break and war, the former "beginning of the end".
Ropot against Napoleon in France
Protecessive people have long been predicted that it is sooner or later to be a catastrophe. While the proclamation of the Empire of Cambasis, who was one of the consuls with Napoleon, spoke to another, Lebed: "I have a premonition that what is being built now will not be firmly. We guessed the war with Europe to impose a republic as the daughters of the French Republic, and now we will lead the war to give her monarchs, sons or our brothers, and the case will end in that France, exhausted by wars, falls under the severity of these insane enterprises " "You're satisfied, once said Marine Minister of Decrescies Marshal Marmonium, because here they made Marshal, and everything seems to you in the pink light. But do you want me to tell you the truth and reassigned the curtain, for which the future is hiding? The emperor was crushed, completely crushed: all of us, how many of us are, he will force the battlefield, and all this will end with a scary disaster. " In front of the Russian campaign of 1812 and in France itself began to show some opposition against the constant wars and despotism of Napoleon Bonaparte. It was already mentioned above that Napoleon met with a protest against his handling of Pope from some members of the Church Cathedral convened to him in Paris in 1811, and in the same year it was another deputation from the Paris Chamber of Commerce with the presentation of Continental system for the French industry and trade. The population began to be illuminated by the endless wars of Bonaparte, an increase in military spending, the growth of the army, and already in 1811 the number of military service had reached a little up to 80 thousand people. In the spring of 1812, a deaf ropot in the Paris population forced Napoleon especially early to move to Saint-Clocks, and only with such a mood of the people could arise in the head of one general, named Male, the bold thought to take advantage of Napoleon's war in Russia to produce a state coup in Paris In order to restore the republic. Suspended in unreliability, Male was arrested, but ran out of his conclusion, appeared in some barracks and there she declared the soldiers about the death of "Tirana" Bonaparte, allegedly conquering life in a distant military campaign. Part of the garrison went for Male, and he, by making the sublayled Senatus consultation, was already preparing to organize a temporary government, when he was captured and, together with his accomplices, was devoted to the military court sentenced to all of them for the death penalty. Having learned about this plot, Napoleon was extremely annoyed by the fact that some even representatives of power believed the attackers, and that the public had reacted quite indifferent to all this.
Napoleon's campaign to Russia 1812
Male conspiracy refers to the end of October 1812, when the failure of Napoleon's campaign to Russia was already quite clear. Of course, the military events of this year are too well known to be needed in their detailed presentation, and therefore it remains only to remind the main moments of the war with Bonaparte 1812, which received the name "domestic", i.e. the national and invasion of "Galov" and with They are "bidenty languages."
In the spring of 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte concentrated large military forces and in Prussia, formerly forced, like Austria, to enter into an alliance with him, and in the Warsaw Great Duchy, and in mid-June his troops, without declaring war, entered into the then limits of Russia. Napoleon's "Great Army" in 600 thousand people only consisted of the French: the rest was different other "peoples": Austrians, Prussians, Bavarians, etc., i.e., in general, the allies and vassals of Napoleon Bonaparte. Russian troop, which was three times less and, moreover, scattered, had to retreat at the beginning of the war. Napoleon quickly began to occupy one city after another, mainly on the way to Moscow. Only under Smolensky managed to connect two Russian army, which turned out to be, however, unable to stop the offensive of the enemy. Kutuzov's attempt to delay Bonaparte in Borodina (see Battle Articles in Borodino 1812 and Borodino Battle of 1812 - briefly), made at the end of August, did not have success either, and in early September, Napoleon was already in Moscow, from where he thought to dictate Alexander I Conditions of the World. But just at this time, the war with the French was made by people. Already after the battle near Smolensk, the settlers of the localities, through which the Army of Napoleon Bonaparte was moving, began to burn on her way, and with her arrival in Moscow, fires began and in this ancient capital of Russia, from where most of the population retired. Little-lit city almost all burned down, the reserves, which in it were, were exhausted, and the use of new people was hampered by the Russian partisan detachments, who launched the war on all the roads, which led to Moscow. When Napoleon was convinced of a vanity of his hope that he would ask peace, he wished to join the negotiations, but he did not meet the slightest desire to enter into the world. On the contrary, Alexander I decided to lead the war to the final expulsion of the French from Russia. While Bonaparte was inactive in Moscow, the Russians began to prepare to completely cut out Napoleon from Russia. This plan was not realized, but Napoleon understood the danger and hurried to leave the ruined and burned Moscow. First, the French made an attempt to break into the south, but the Russians cut off the road in front of them MaloyaroslavaAnd the remnants of the Great Army Bonaparte had to retreat in the former, devastated Smolensk road with early winter and very harsh winter. The Russians followed this distressful retreat almost on the heels, causing one defeat behind the other who retired detachments. Napoleon himself, happily avoided captivity when crossing his army across Berezina, in the second half of November threw everything and went to Paris, only now deciding to officially notify France and Europe about the failure, comprehended during the Russian war. The retreat of the remnants of the Great Army Bonaparte was now a real flight among the horrors of cold and hunger. December 2, less than six full months after the start of the war of Russia, the last detachments of Napoleon moved back the Russian border. After that, the French had nothing more than to quit the fate and the Warsaw Duchy, the capital of which the Russian army occupied in January 1813.
Transition of the Napoleon Army through Berezina. Picture P. von Gess, 1844
Foreign campaign of the Russian Army and the War of the Sixth Coalition
When Russia was completely purified from enemy hordes, Kutuzov advised Alexander I to restrict it and stop further war. But in the soul of the Russian sovereign, the mood prevailed, forcing him to transfer military actions against Napoleon outside Russia. In this last intention, the Emperor was strongly supported by the Emperor, the German patriot Stein, who was found against the persecution of Napoleon in Russia and to a certain extent subordinating Alexander his influence. The failure of the war of the Great Army in Russia made a big impression on the Germans, among which the national inspiration was more and more, the monument of which remained Patriotic Lyrics of Kerner and other poets of the era. At first, German governments were not solved, however, to follow their subjects, rising against Napoleon Bonaparte. When at the very end of 1812, Prussian General York signed up with the Russian general Dibica in Taurogen and stopped the struggle for the work of France, Friedrich Wilhelm III remained extremely dissatisfied, as was also dissatisfied with the decree of the Zemstical Members of Eastern and Western Prussia, to organize Matte thoughts, provincial militia for the war with the enemy of the German nation. Only when the Russians entered the Prussian territory, the king, forced to choose between the Union or with Napoleon, or with Alexander I, bowed to the direction of the latter, and then not without some hesitation. In February 1813, Prussia concluded a military treaty with Russia, accompanied by the appeal of both sovereign to the population of Prussia. Then Friedrich Wilhelm III was declared Bonaparta War, and it was published a special royal appeal to loyal. In this and other proclamations with which new allies also addressed to the population of other parts of Germany and in the compilation of which Stein played a active role, a lot was mentioned about the independence of the peoples, the right to dispose of their fate, about the power of public opinion, which should be adopted by the state trucks , etc.
From Prussia, where there were still detachments of volunteers from people of any title and a state, often and not former prussian subjects, the national movement began to move to other German states, the governments of which, on the contrary, remained correct by Napoleon Bonaparte and held back in their possessions of manifestations German patriotism. Meanwhile, Sweden, England and Austria joined the Russian-Prussian military union, after which the members of the Rhine Union began to disappear from loyalty - under the condition of inviolability of their territories or at least equivalent remuneration in cases where they would be made or changes within the boundaries of their possessions. So formed Sixth coalition against Bonaparte. Three day (October 16-18) battle with Napoleon under Leipzig, formerly unfavorable for the French and forced them to start the retreat to Rhine, had a consequence of the destruction of the Rhine Union, the return of dynasties expected during the Napoleonic wars and the final transition to the side of the anti-Manzu coalition of the South Hermann sovereigns.
By the end of 1813, the East East from the Rhine were free from the French, and on the night of January 1, 1814 part of the Prussian army under the boss Blucher Crossing through this river, which served the eastern border of the Empire Bonaparte. Even before the Leipzig battle, the Allied State Supports offered Napoleon to join peace negotiations, but he did not agree to any conditions. Before transferring the war to the territory of the empire itself, Napoleon was once again offered the world on the conditions of preservation of the Rhine and Alpine borders, but only refusal to domination in Germany, in Holland, in Italy and in Spain, but Bonaparte continued to persist, although in France itself public The opinion considered these conditions quite acceptable. A new proposal for the world in mid-February 1814, when the allies were already in French territory, equally did not lead to anything. The war went with variable happiness, but one defeat of the French army (during Arsi-sur-about March 20-21) discovered the allies of the road to Paris. On March 30, they took the attack of Montmartra heights dominating this city, and 31 numbers were made solemn entry into the most city.
Napoleon lowland in 1814 and Bourbon restoration
The next day after that, the Senate proclaimed the lowland Napoleon Bonaparte with the throne with the formation of a temporary government, and two days later, that is, on April 4, and he himself, in the castle Fontainebleau, renounced the throne in favor of his son after he learned about Marshal Marshal's transition to the side of the Allies. The latter did not suffer from this, however, and after a week Napoleon was forced to sign an act of unconditional renunciation from the throne. The title of Emperor was preserved behind him, but he had to live on O-ve Elbe, given to his possession. During these events, the fallen Bonaparte was already the subject of extreme hatred of the population of France, as a culprit of ruin wars and enemy invasion.
The temporary government formed after the end of the war and the deployment of Napoleon developed a draft of the new Constitution, which was adopted by the Senate. Meanwhile, then was already prepared in accordance with the winners of France, the restoration of Bourbons represented by Brother executed during the revolutionary wars of Louis XVI, who after the death of his little nephew, who admitted royalists for Louis XVII, became referred to Louis XVIII. The Senate proclaimed him by the king freely designed to the throne, but Louis XVIII wanted to reign exclusively in his hereditary right. He did not accept the Senate Constitution, and instead of her he had granted the constitutional charter, and then under strong pressure from Alexander I, who agreed to the restoration only under the condition of the declaration of France of the Constitution. One of the main figures that troubled at the end of the war for the Bourbon was Talleyran.who said that only the restoration of the dynasty will be the result of the principle, yet the rest of the simple intrigue. With Louis XVIII, his younger brother and heir, Count D`, with his family, other princes and numerous emigrants from the most irreconcilable representatives of pre-revolutionary France were returned. The nation immediately felt that both Burbones and emigrants in exile, saying by Napoleon, "nothing forgotten and did not learn anything." The alarm began throughout the country, numerous reasons for which were given by the statements and behavior of the princes, who returned the nobles and the clergy, who were clearly striving for the restoration of the antiquity. The people started talking even about the restoration of feudal rights, etc. Bonaparte watched on his Elbe, how the irritation against Bourbon grew in France, and at the Congress, who gathered in Vienna, in the fall of 1814. For the arrangement of European affairs, stocking began, which could Originate allies. In the eyes of the fallen emperor, these were favorable circumstances to return to themselves in France.
"One hundred days" of Napoleon and the War of the Seventh Coalition
On March 1, 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte with a small detachment secretly left Elbe and suddenly landed near Cannes, where he moved to Paris. The former Lord of France brought with his proclamation to the army, to the nation, and the population of coastal departments. "I," it was said in the second one, was erected to the throne on your election, and everything that was done without you, illegally ... Let the sovereign, who put on my throne by the power of the armies, devastating our country, refers to the principles feudal right, but it can provide interests only a small bunch of enemies of the people! .. French! In exile, I heard your complaints and desires: you demanded the return of the government chosen by you and therefore the only legitimate ", etc. On the way of Napoleon Bonaparte to Paris, his small detachment increased from the soldiers who joined him everywhere, and his new military campaign received Type of a triumphal procession. In addition to the soldiers who loved his "little bit", the people who saw the Savior who saw in him from hated emigrants were now crushed towards Napoleon. Marshal of her, sent against Napoleon, boasted before leaving, which will bring him in the cage, but then with all his detachment he switched to his side. On March 19, Louis XVIII hastily fled from Paris, forgetting in the Tuilry Palace of Talleyran's report from the Vienna Congress and a secret treaty against Russia, and on the other day the people's crowd literally contributed to Napoleon to the palace, only on the eve of the king abandoned by the king.
Napoleon's return to power was the result of not only a military rebellion against Bourbon, but also a national movement that could easily go to the real revolution. To reconcile with their educated classes and bourgeoisie, Napoleon agreed now to the liberal reform of the Constitution, calling for this case of one of the most prominent political writers of the era, Benjan Konstan.who used to speak out sharply against his despotism. A new Constitution was drawn up, which, however, the name of the "additional act" to "the constitutions of the Empire" (i.e., to the laws of the VIII, X and XIIs), and this act is given to the statement of the people who made it one and a half million votes . On June 3, 1815, there was a discovery of new representative chambers, in front of several days, Napoleon was speaking, declaring the introduction of a constitutional monarchy in France. The response addresses of representatives and peers did not like, however, the emperor, as they concluded warnings and instructions, and he expressed his displeasure. Further continuation of the conflict, however, did not have, since Napoleon had to hurry on the war.
The news about the return of Napoleon to France made sovereigns and ministers gathered at Congress in Vienna, to stop the parties between them and connect again to the General Union for the new war with Bonaparte ( Wars seventh coalition). On June 12, Napoleon left Paris to go to his army, and the 18th day at Waterloo was divided by the Anglo-Prussian army under the superior of Wellington and Bluchber. In Paris, a new defeat awaited in Paris in this new short war: the House of Representatives demanded that he renounce him from the throne in favor of the Son, who was proclaimed by the emperor under the name of Napoleon II. Allies, soon emerged under the walls of Paris, decided the case otherwise, namely, Louis XVIII was restored. Napoleon himself while approaching the enemy to Paris, thought to escape to America and with this goal arrived in Rochefort, but was intercepted by the British, gathering him on the island of Saint Helena. This secondary reign of Napoleon, accompanied by the war of the seventh coalition, lasted only about three months and received the name "hundred days" in history. In his new conclusion, the recently deployed emperor Bonaparte lived for about six years, died in May 1821.
And invaded Russian lands. The French rushed at the offensive as a bull during the Corrida. In the composition of Napoleon's army there was a European national Salonian team: in addition to the French were there and (forced recruited) Germans, Austrians, Spaniards, Italians, Dutch, Poles and many others, which are generally up to 650 thousand people. Russia could estrust approximately the same number of soldiers, but some of them together with Kutuzovstill in Moldova, in the other part - in the Caucasus. In the process of invasion of Napoleon to his army, even 20 thousand Lithuanians joined.
The Russian army was divided into two lines of defense, under the command of General Peter Bagration and Mikhail Barclay de Toll. The invasion of the French had to the troops of the latter. The calculation of Napoleon was simple - one or two victorious battles (maximum - three), and Alexander I. will be forced to sign the world under France. However, Barclay de Tolly gradually, with small slaughter, retreated in Russia, but did not enter the main battle. Near Smolensk, the Russian army almost fell into the environment, but did not enter the battle and slipped out of the French, continuing to delay them deep into its territory. Napoleon took the empty Smolensk and could stop at this, but Kutuzov, who arrived from Moldova to the replacement of Barclay de Tolly, knew that the French emperor would not do that, continued to retreat to Moscow. Bagration ripped into an attack, and he was supported by most of the population of the country, but Alexander did not allow, leaving Peter Bagration on the border in Austria, in case of the attack of the Allies of France.
On the entire path, Napoleon got only abandoned and scorched settlements - neither people nor the supplies. After the "indicative" battle for Smolensk on August 18, 1812, Napoleon's troops began to get tired of russian campaign 1812Since the conquest was some kind of negative: large-scale battles and loud victories were not, the trophy supplies and weapons were not, the winter was coming, during which the "great army" had to be wintering, and there was no nothing suitable for apartment.
Battle of Borodino.
At the end of August near Mozhaisk (125 kilometers from Moscow), Kutuzov stopped in the field at the village Borodinowhere he decided to give the general battle. For the most part, it was forced public opinion, since the constant retreat did not correspond to the moods of neither the people nor the nobles or the emperor.
August 26, 1812 the famous Battle of Borodino. Bagration pulled up to Borodino, but still the Russians were able to put a little more than 110 thousand soldiers. Napoleon at that time had up to 135 thousand people.
The course and the result of the battle is known to many: the French have repeatedly stormed the defensive Redoubts of Kutuzov with the active support of artillery ("Mixed a bunch of horses, people ..."). The Russians who have risening along the normal battle were heroically reflected the attacks of the French, despite the huge superiority of the latter in service (from guns to guns). The French lost up to 35 thousand killed, and Russians are ten thousand more, but Napoleon managed to only move the central position of Kutuzov, and in fact, the attack of Bonaparte was stopped. After the battle, which lasted all day, the French emperor began to prepare for a new sturm, but Kutuzov, by morning on August 27, took his troops to Mozhaisk, not wanting to lose even more people.
On September 1, 1812, a military officer occurred in a nearby village council in philyduring which Mikhail Kutuzov With the support of Barclay de Tolly, I decided to leave Moscow for the sake of rescue the army. Contemporaries say that this decision the commander-in-chief was extremely difficult.
On September 14, Napoleon entered the left and ruined recent capital of Russia. During his location in Moscow, the sabotage groups of the Moscow Governor Rostopchina repeatedly attacked French officers and burned their captured apartments. As a result, from 14 to 18 September, Moscow walked, and Napoleon lacked resources to cope with the fire.
At the beginning of the invasion, before the Borodino battle, as well as three times after the occupation of Moscow, Napoleon tried to negotiate with Alexander and sign the world. But from the very beginning of the war, the Russian emperor, from the very beginning of the war, adamantly banned any negotiations until the enemy legs turn Russian land.
Understanding that they won't come out in the ruined Moscow, on October 19, 1812, the French left Moscow. Napoleon decided to return to Smolensk, but not scorched, but through Kaluga, counting on the way to get at least some supplies.
In the battle under Tarutino and a little later, under the Small Yaroslavl, on October 24, Kutuzov beat off the French, and they were forced to return to the ruined Smolensk road, which was previously shown.
On November 8, Bonaparte got to Smolensk, which turned out to be ruined (and half - the French themselves). Along the way to Smolensk, the emperor constantly lost man by man - to hundreds of soldiers per day.
For the summer-autumn of 1812, a partisan movement was formed in Russia, headed by a liberation war. Partisan detachments numbered up to several thousand people. They attacked Napoleon's army, like Amazonian Piranhas on the wounded Jaguar, waited for the sumizers with supplies and weapons, exterminated the avant-gardes and arielices of troops. The most famous leader of these detachments has become Denis Davydov. In the partisan detachments joined the peasants, and workers, and nobles. It is believed that they destroyed more than half of the army of Bonaparte. Of course, Kutuzov's soldiers, who also pursued Napoleon on his heels, were not lagged behind and constantly committed.
On November 29, a major battle on Berezine occurred when Chichag Admirals and Wittgenstein admirals, without waiting for Kutuzov, attacked the Army of Napoleon and destroyed 21 thousand of his soldiers. However, the emperor was able to slip away, while only 9 thousand people remained at his disposal. With them, he got to Vilna (Vilnius), where he was expected to be his generals and Murat.
December 14, after the attack of Kutuzov to Wilna, the French lost 20 thousand soldiers and threw the city. Napoleon in a hurry fled to Paris, ahead of his remains Great Army. Together with the remnants of the garrison of Wilna and other cities, the limits of Russia left a little more than 30 thousand Napoleonic warriors, while about 610 thousand were invaded to Russia, at a minimum.
After defeat in Russia French Empire began to fall apart. Bonaparte continued to send ambassadors to Alexander, offering almost all Poland in exchange for a peace treaty. Nevertheless, the Russian emperor decided to completely deliver Europe from dictatorship and tyranny (and these are not loud words, but reality) Napoleon Bonaparte.