Types of experiment in psychology. Main types of experiment in psychology Experimental research method Examples

Method -this is a way of scientific knowledge of any reality. In terms of its composition, the scientific method is a set of techniques or operations that the researcher exercises when studying any object. In modern psychology, research methods are conditionally divided into objective methods, descriptive and methods of psychological assistance.

Experient - This is a way to obtain information on the quantitative and qualitative change in the performance of the activities and behavior of the observed object. From simple observation, the experiment is distinguished by the fact that the researcher, studying any phenomenon, can arbitrarily change the conditions under which it is performed, and, observing the results of such an intervention, draw conclusions about the patterns of the studied phenomenon.

Psychological experiment - conducted in special conditions experience To obtain new scientific knowledge through the targeted intervention of the researcher in the vital activity of the subject.

The concept of "psychological experiment" is interpreted by various authors, often under the experiment in psychology is considered a complex of various independent empirical methods (actually experiment, observation, survey, testing). However, traditionally in experimental psychology, the experiment is considered an independent method. .

Depending on the nature of the experimental situation, allocate laboratoryand natural experiment. Depending on the degree of experimental intervention, the experiment is divided into the object under study the statement and forming (or psychological and pedagogical experiment is).

With the resulting experiment, the goal is set not only to establish patterns as with a statement experiment, but also use these patterns to achieve expedient results to study results. Depending on the logical structure of proof of the hypothesis, the experiment is divided into consistent, parallel and cross. With a parallel experiment, there is an experimental and control group. Proof relies on a comparison of the state of the experimental and control group. In a sequential experiment, only 1 object is studied, and the proof is based on the comparison of the state of this object before and after exposure. When cross-experiment, the experimental and control group varies in places from the stage to the study stage. Quasi-experiment - Its feature is that the initial state is not diagnosed in it, and only the results and results are proved by the effectiveness of the experiment.

Psychological hypothesis - assumptions formulated on psychological reality as part of the use of certain psychological ideas; Concerning theoretical concepts of concepts function in hypothesis as hypothetical constructs. Traditionally (after R. Gottsdanker and N.V. Spring), the understanding of the hypothesis is given as the ratio of dependent and independent variables. In the pedagogue, and partly in pedagogical psychology, the hypothesis is considered as a three-part ratio, beyond the formula: if, then ...., because ....

Requirements for the scientific experiment: - Independent and experimental (vary by the experimenter and their effect is studied on dependent variables. This is the alleged causes of the explanatory phenomenon) and the dependent variables (the explanatory phenomenon itself or the intended consequence of these reasons)

The presence of a procedure for varying the value of the value of an independent variable-presence of alternative hypotheses, which in other things, than the main one, result from receiving the resort. - The presence of experimental (it is experiment) and the control group (compared to the resort) .- Experimental control.

In the experiment, it is possible to test hypotheses about causal relationships and dependencies between studied phenomena + theoretically comprehend all collected facts.

The main features of the experiment, resulting in its strength, are as follows.

1) In the experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon studied by them, instead of waiting, as with objective observation, until the random flow of phenomena delivers him to observe it.

2) having the ability to cause a studied phenomenon, the experimenter may vary, changing the conditions under which the phenomenon proceeds, instead of being, as with a simple observation, take them as what they give to him.

3) Isolating individual conditions and changing one of them while maintaining the remaining remaining remaining, thereby identifies the value of the specific conditions and establishes the patterns that determine the process being studied by it. The experiment, thus, a very powerful methodological means for identifying patterns.

4) revealing patterns between phenomena, the experimenter can vary not only the conditions themselves in the sense of their presence or absence, but also their quantitative relations. As a result of the experiment, the quantitative patterns allowing mathematical formulation. Basically, precisely thanks to the experiment, natural science came to the discovery of the laws of nature.

The main task of a psychological experiment is to make the essential features of the internal mental process available for objective external observation. To do this, varying the conditions for the flow of external activities, to find a situation in which the external flow of the act would adequately reflect its internal psychological content. The task of experimental variation of the conditions under the psychological experiment is primarily to open the correctness of the same psychological interpretation of the action or a deed, eliminating the possibility of all the others.

The initial Wandov experiment was the experiment of psychophysiological. It consisted in essentially in the registration of physiological reactions, accompanying mental processes, which was accompanied by self-observation.

The Wandov Experiment was entirely built on the dualistic theory of external parallelism of mental and physiological. These methodological principles have formed the basis of the experimental technique and determined the first steps of experimental psychology.

But the experimental technique began to make a few other ways soon. The essential stage was in this regard by the study of the G. Ebbinkaus about memory (see chapter about memory). Instead of studying the exclusively relationship between physical irritants, physiological processes and related phenomena of consciousness, Ebbigauz sent an experiment to study the course of the psychological process in certain objective conditions.

Since then, and mainly in recent years, the experiment has received very diverse forms and widespread use in various fields of psychology - in the psychology of animals, in general psychology and in the psychology of the child. At the same time, some of the newest experiments are distinguished by the large rigor of the technique; For simplicity, the grace and accuracy of the results are sometimes not inferior to the best samples created by such mature experimental sciences, such as physics.

A number of chapters of modern psychology can already rely on accurate experimental data. The modern psychology of perception is especially rich in them.

Three considerations were put forward against the laboratory experiment. It was indicated: 1) on the artificiality of the experiment, 2) on the analyticalness and abstractness of the experiment and 3) on the complicating role of the experimental impact.

The artificiality of the experiment or its remoteness from life is not due to the fact that in the experiment some complicating conditions occur in life situations are turned off. An artificial experiment becomes, only since the conditions for the studied phenomenon falls in it. Thus, the experiments of the G. Ebbinkaus with meaningless material are artificial, since they do not take into account the semantic links, meanwhile, as in most cases, these relationships play a significant role in memory. If the theory of Ebbigauz's memory was essentially correct, i.e. If only mechanical repetitions, purely associative bonds determined reproduction, Ebbigauz experiments would not be artificial. The essence of the experiment, in contrast to simple observation, is determined not by artificial conditions in which it is produced, but the impact of the experimenter to the process to be studied. Therefore, the artificiality of the traditional laboratory experiment must be overcome primarily within the experimental method.

The known analyticality and abstractness was largely characteristic of the laboratory experiment. The experiment usually takes the process being studied in an isolated, inside one specific environmental system. Disclosure of the relationship of various functions and changes in the process of developing laws of mental processes require additional methods. They are mainly given genetic and pathological methods. Further, the experiment in psychology is usually carried out under conditions that are far from those in which human practical activity flows. Since the patterns that revealed the experiment were very general, abstract character, they did not give the possibilities of immediate conclusions to organize human activity in the production work or the pedagogical process. The attempt of the application of these abstract patterns to practice was often transformed into a mechanical transfer of the results obtained in some conditions to others, often completely heterogeneous. This abstractness of a psychological experiment forced to look for new methodological techniques for solving practical tasks.

Very complex and significant is the question of the impact of the impact of the experimenter on the subject. To overcome the difficulties that arise in connection with this sometimes seek to eliminate the immediate imperimenter's impact and to build an experiment so that the very situation, and not the direct intervention of the experimental (instruction, etc.) caused the acts to be studied. However, since the experiment on the very creature always includes directly or indirect impact of the experimenter, the question is not so much to eliminate this impact, as if it is to correctly take into account and organize it.

When evaluating and interpreting the results of the experiment, it is necessary to specifically identify and take into account the attitude of the subject to the experimental task and the experimentator. This is necessary, because the behavior of the test in the experiment is not an automatic reaction, but a specific manifestation of a person who establishes its attitude to the surrounding. This attitude affects its behavior and in the experimental situation.

Using the experiment in psychology, you can never forget that any intervention of the experimenter, in order to study mental phenomena, at the same time, inevitably turns out to be a means of a useful or harmful effect on the studied personality. Of particular importance is this provision when studying the psychology of the child. It imposes a restriction on the use of an experiment, which cannot be not considered. It is also necessary to keep in mind that the data obtained in the experimental situation can be correctly interpreted, only taken in the ratio with the conditions in which they are obtained. Therefore, in order to correctly interpret the results of the psychological experiment, it is necessary to compare the experimental conditions with the pre-experimental situation and the terms of the entire path of development of this person and interpret the direct data of the experiment in relation to them.

Given all this, it is necessary:

1) transform an experiment from the inside to overcome the artificiality of the traditional experiment;

2) to supplement the experiment with other methodological means. To resolve the same tasks;

3) Enter methodical options that are intermediate forms between experiment and observation, and other auxiliary methods.

A peculiar version of the experiment representing the intermediate form between observation and experiment is the method of the so-called natural experiment proposed by A.F.lasur.

Its main tendency to combine the experimental nature of the study with the naturalness of the conditions is very valuable and significantly. Specifically, this tendency in the Lazur in its method of natural experiment is implemented as follows: with the method of a natural experiment, the experimental effects are subject to the conditions in which the activities have been studied, the same activity of the subject is observed in its natural flow.

For example, a preliminary analysis detects to the importance of various school subjects, their influence on the manifestation of certain mental processes of the child, which are then studied in natural conditions of school work on this subject. Or is pre-installed, in which game is particularly pronounced, one or another character trait is manifested; Then, in order to study the manifestation of this feature, various children are involved in this game. In the process of this game, the researcher observes their activities in vivo. Instead of translating studied phenomena in laboratory conditions, try to take into account the effect and choose natural conditions that meet the objectives of the study. In these respectively selected conditions, the processes are observed in their natural flow, without any intervention from the experimenter.

We introduce into our research on the psychology of the child another variant of the natural experiment. A.F. Lazursky avoided the direct impact on the child in the interests of "naturalness". But in reality, the child is developing in the context of education and training, i.e. In a certain way organized impact on it. Compliance with natural development conditions Therefore, it does not require eliminating any impact at all. The impact built by the type of pedagogical process is quite natural. We introduce it to the experiment, thus implementing a new version of the "natural" experiment, which, in our opinion, occupy a central place in the method of psychological and pedagogical research of the child.

We study the child, teaching it. We do not refuse to be experimenting in favor of observing the pedagogical process, but we introduce elements of pedagogical impact in the most experiment, building a study by the type of experimental lesson. Teaching a child, we strive not to fix the stage or the level on which the child is located, but help him move from this stage to the next highest stage. In this promotion, we study the patterns of development of a children's psyche.

The system of basic psychological methods, in the aggregate of its allowing you to allow all the tasks facing it, deployed in their main links. In this indicative characterization of methods, of course, only a common framework. Each method to become a real means of scientific research should be first the result of the study. It is not a form, from the outside superimposed on the material, not the external only technical technique. He implies knowledge of real dependencies: in physics - physical, psychology - psychological.

The reflexological method in physiology, which serves as a means of physiological research, was built on the preliminary opening and study of reflexes; It is the result and means of studying the patterns of reflex activity - first the result and only then means; Similarly, an associative experiment relies on the doctrine of associations. Therefore, each psychological discipline has its own technique other than the methods of others; Methods of psychology of animals are different from human psychology methods: self-surveillance disappears, and other methods are converted. And each individual problem has its own special techniques designed to study it. In connection with the definition of the subject of psychology, only the main types of methods and the general principles of their construction are planned here.

Test

Experiment as a method of psychological research

Introduction

Methods of empirical research

Experiment method

The main characteristics of the experiment

Evaluation of the quality of the psychological experiment

Specifics of the organization of experimental communication

Organization and conduct of the reproductive study

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The observed actions and human behavior allow to a certain extent to judge how the world around him is reflected by his psyche, as its reflected activity proceeds. It is this circumstance that makes it possible to exist psychology as science. At the same time, it should always be remembered that the relationship between the external conditions and the observed human behavior is not direct, unambiguous. In the reflection of the world, who manage his behavior, includes all its past personal experience, and mastered through training experience of society. And the needs of a person, and his desires, goals, values, relations to the world.

All this combination of information, relations to the environment, aspirations and ways of behavior, which person has and is guided by the person is called internal conditions. Accordingly, it can be said that external conditions affect human behavior through internal conditions. It is according to this, according to the external observed behavior of a person, as a rule, it is impossible to unambiguously judge the internal processes that flow into his psyche. This is the main difficulty of psychological research. The same thing can be caused by different people with the most different considerations and reasons. And, on the contrary, the same feeling, goal, the idea can be expressed in very different actions.

The task of all methods of scientific psychology is precisely primarily to create conditions in which the relationship between the observed behavior and its mental reasons would become the most unambiguous.

The object of our study is the method of experiment in psychology.

The subject of the study is the specific features of the experiment as a method of testing the theory of experimental data.

The purpose of the study is to characterize the experiment and identify its specific features.

Research tasks:

1.Analyze psychological literature on the topic of research.

2.Specify the experiment as a method of psychological research

.Describe the properties of the experiment as a scientific method

.Identify specific features of the experiment

. Describe the conditions necessary for an effective experiment

empirical Study Condition Experiment

1. Empirical research methods

The arsenal of scientific methodology includes various techniques, techniques, approaches, types of strategies, ways to plan experiment and logical rules. They differ from the problem to the problem and the discipline for discipline. For many years, the experimental psychologists of the United States did not conduct studies that are not consistent with the paradigm, in accordance with which is introduced (or assumed) the impact of the variable, and then there are consequences. The traditional experiment plan corresponded to a single scheme: establishing causal relations between events and their consequences.

But there are many psychological problems, to solve which such a straightforward paradigm turns out to be ineffective, therefore the use of more appropriate methods is required. Such problems include the study of consumer demand for working steel mills of Pittsburgh, the difference in the number of people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis in Miami and Seattle or fashion trends in the last century. These and hundreds of similar topics are of great interest, benefit and importance for psychologists and can be studied by scientific, empirical methods that allow us to obtain reliable results. The task of the researcher is to make decisions and substantiate them. Therefore, it is important that the student studying experimental psychology is familiar with a variety of research methods in order to know when it is permissible (and when not) use one or another experimental plan.

It is very important to have some standard data collection tools in non-experimental studies, for example, based on observations for subject (or subjects) for a certain period of time. Consider an example of a non-traditional research paradigm.

As can be seen from this example, the elements of the time and frequency of events are indispensable components of observational data. The three different methods of quantitative assessment of the behavior of the subjects are used. This is the frequency method, the duration method and the interval method.

This method is based on counting specific cases of behavior within a certain period of time. So, if you are interested in the aggressive behavior of children on the playground for games, you can give the operational definition of aggressive behavior and fix cases of this behavior, for example, for a 30-minute period.

Provides fixation of the duration of each occupation of the episode of behavior. In the case of studying aggressive behavior, it is possible, for example, to record the duration of each case of aggressive behavior.

This is a method of observation at which time is divided by intervals, for example, for 3 minutes each. The observer writes the observer, at which intervals one or another act (for example, aggressive) fell. Information of this kind gives information as a sequence of behavior.

As the term itself implies, observation in natural conditions is "field" studies based on observations of subjects under natural conditions.

As a rule, the researcher does not try to change the surrounding conditions for assessing the impact of a particular variable, but instead of the social conditions themselves and the subjects stimulate events that become data sources. In a sense, all people are naturalists, that is, we are watching other people in their natural environment, be it the airport, a supermarket, a bar for bachelor, an educational audience or the theater. However, it should be emphasized here that since observation facilities are in vivo, and not in the laboratory, the methodology of scientific observations in this case is less definite.

Observation in natural conditions includes a systematic fixation by an accepted information by a researcher. The venue for such observation may be areas where a person's foot has come, for example. Over time for natural observation in American psychology, Taboo was affixed. Nevertheless, it reached the greatest popularity and is again considered as an important method of data collection. Even in the current conditions, scientists must remember that in the process of observation in natural conditions it is necessary to record their objective and systematic results in order to protect against the distortions of information from personal prejudices, feelings and inconsistencies.

Suppose you are interested in the problem, many centuries intriguing the imagination of people, - night behavior in full moon. Numerous legends are told (psychologists experimenters are very suspicious about legends) that at this time people begin to experience anxiety and commit strange deeds - hence the origin of the word "Lunatic".

Random information that sometimes becomes a source of various hypotheses, says that people sleep worse in full moon, they see more dreams, they use more alcohol than usual. Police, hospital staff, ambulance and other specialists, working with victims of accidents, indicate an increased frequency of abnormal behavior during the full moon, and some studies confirm the results. A few years ago, one of our student, at night he was on duty in a psychiatric hospital, gathered data on how many times the patients got up at night depending on the moon phase. The relationship turned out to be positive, but its reason remained uncertain. Perhaps the reason for this was just the best than in other nights, the illumination, allowing the patients to go into the bathroom, not stumbling about the obstacles.

To collect reliable data on the night activity of patients and its links with lunar phases, it is important to establish the operational criteria for this type of behavior. Since the number of visits to the patient toilet may be due to simplicity conditions, it is necessary to carry out more detailed observations of such features as the patient's body position during sleep, how many times it turns into a dream, which sees dreams, and then relate the results of observations with the moon phases. All these observations should be made extremely unobtrusively so that the observer does not become an unwitting indignant factor. Moreover, each factor must be quantified, which may require the presence of complex equipment (although it should be noted that for many observations in the natural conditions of special equipment is not required). To record body positions during sleep, the experimenter can fix how many times the patient turns out of one position (for example, face up) to another (face down) overnight. Night activity can be empirically measured by setting a bed into four microswitters capable of marking its shaking. The frequency of dreams can be measured by attaching microvalets to the heating of fast movements of the eyes associated with the intensity of dreams. To record the values \u200b\u200bof these three variables (dependent variables in this study), a special table is intended.

Another example of studies of the same type - in vivo - we will now consider a field study. This study was carried out using the "Method of Lost Letters", in which people are led by fictitious letters to check if they will send them to recipients. The number of refunds is measured (that is, the number of sent letters sent), for example, for different areas.

Bryson and Hemblin (Bryson, Hamblin, 1988) used this method to assess the proportion of return postcards that contained either neutral or bad news. Pay attention to the proportion of return depending on the type of news and on the floor of the subject.

Other productive research methods include polls, personal interviews, content analysis, archival research and observations of participants, among others. As mentioned earlier, the research process consists of a number of decisions that the researcher must accept, and the justifications that it should do. It is necessary to carefully consider the topic of research, a particular issue, the available resources and the most adequate research methodology. Understanding a variety of research methods will help you in making a decision when you need to choose an experimental plan.

2. Experiment method

The Greek philosopher Aristotle, describing the acceleration of falling objects, began with the fact that, according to "logic", heavier bodies should fall at a greater speed than the lungs. From the top of the Voon Building should fall to the ground faster than a stone, because the boulder is heavier. Many people still believe that the cannonic core falls faster than a small lead ball, with other factors. "The logic of common sense" seems to be valid, but science does not trust the logic of common sense. Galilei questioned the validity of this logical conclusion and, as Schoolchildren know now, decided to observe the relative speed of falling objects. His laboratory was the falling tower in Pisa (although any high building could be used with the same success, but the mention of the tower makes this story more interesting and now, a century, and undoubtedly attracts hordes of tourists to Northern Italy).

Retrospectively, we can see that the experimental Galilee procedure consists of four consecutive steps, which are strikingly consistent with modern ideas about the scientific research:

Hypothesis formulation. Objects of various weights will fall on the ground with the same speed.
Observations. Measuring relative speeds of incident objects of different weights.
Reproducibility. Numerous observations of objects with different weights were performed.

1 Formulation of the law (or model). If observations confirm the hypothesis about the relationship between the weights of the objects and the speeds with which they fall, you can formulate a generalized conclusion.

Of course, this early experiment was complicated by the problems that we will call the problems of control.

First, Galiley was supposed to make sure that both objects began to fall into the same moment. For example, if he decided to throw them with his hands, then the tendency could be shifted to throw away the greater and the most difficult object first. Or if he wanted to support his hypothesis, he could unconsciously release a lighter object first to give him initial brief forces in time, even psychological factors influence physics on scientific observations!). In order to control these problems, Galilei could construct a box with an obstinate door in order for both objects to fall out at the same time. Then you can mention the question of measuring the rate of falling, on which it depends on which objects hit the land first. Based on the criteria for objectivity, it was necessary to pretend an outsider observer or observers who could reliably celebrate the moment of falling objects. There is another important variable that could affect the results of the experience: the effect of atmospheric conditions, such as air resistance, on incident objects. Observation shows that the feather falls slower than the copper ball of the same weight. The means of controlling the air resistance variable could be the removal of all air from the laboratory. But since the Galilee laboratory consisted of a falling tower in Pisa and directly surrounding its space, the design of such a vacuum chamber was not available at the technology of that time. (Interestingly, in our time, a measurement of the speed of incident objects in vacuum was measured, and its data confirmed the results of observations of Galilee.). To replace the rough experiments, the times of Galilee came more modern and improved measurements, which confirmed that on any objects, whether they were featured or copper balls, the gravitational power of permanent sizes (gravitational constant) affects the fall. The principle on which this law is based is called the equivalence principle, and it is considered one of the basic laws affecting the physical bodies throughout the universe. The law of gravity and experiments, on the basis of which it is derived, can be considered on two levels of building a scientific research. The first level is the level of basic observation; The second level is awareness that this observation is part of a large system.

Experiments are natural, laboratory and forming. The natural experiment is characterized by insignificant changes in ordinary conditions, such as training and upbringing. In this case, the type of experiment is trying to minimally change the conditions and the context in which the psychological phenomenon that interests the psychologist is proceeded. The natural experiment on the study, for example, emotional interpersonal preferences in the classroom, may be consisted in congratulations to students with a holiday with postcards. The student who received the maximum number of postcards will be an emotional leader who has received a minimum number - indisputable. The laboratory experiment is distinguished by strict standardization of conditions that allow the most insulated phenomenon to be maximized, distract from changing environmental conditions. The resulting experiment provides for the implementation of research results into the practice, followed by the study of changes that arise as a result of such innovations. In addition, an experiment is allocated that checks the hypotheses about the causal influence of a certain factor on the psyche, and the experiment imposing conditions for the formation of mental processes or functions. Each of them has its own sequence of stages. Thus, the testing experiment includes 5 stages.

1. The presentation of the goals, tasks and hypotheses of the study (preparatory).

The research techniques are determined. An analysis of the problem, discussion of relevance, the level of development of the problem is carried out.

A pilot study - a preliminary analysis of any important characteristics of the sample, which is carried out experimental research. This stage includes a development, debugging of the technique that will be used to be used in the experiment. A pilot study specifies targets, tasks, etc.

Experimental procedure - they include a number of experiments (minimum 2). Experiments are held with two groups.
Mathematical analysis of data of empirical research.

Psychological interpretation of research results obtained. It indicates whether the hypothesis is confirmed. It is proved by these studies. It is indicated how tasks were solved, then recommendations are proposed.

An experiment that studies the conditions for the formation of mental processes by creating the appropriate conditions and control of other possible impacts includes the steps:

Setting goals, hypotheses, tasks. This stage includes an analytical overview of the research conducted in the area that the researcher chose to clarify what remained was ineveloped and requires learning. Based on analysis, hypothesis, goals, research objectives are built.
Analysis of methods, techniques, selection of experimental techniques of impact and control.
A statement experiment is carried out, it is aimed at fixing the initial level of development of the function of interest to the psychologist. This stage is carried out using tests.
The resulting experiment is aimed at training, the formation, formation of any skills, any mental functions.
The control experiment is aimed at studying the changes in mental functions that are allegedly related to the training.

6.Mathematical analysis of data and psychological conclusions.

In experimental psychology, there are various types of experiment. The most commonly distinguished the following.

Laboratory - conducted in specially created, often artificial conditions, in order to allocate the so-called "clean" variable, with mandatory control and registration of the impact of all other conditions and factors, excluding side. The classical examples of experiments using the introspection method can be the experiments conducted in the laboratory V. Wundt and its followers, using the methods of objective observation - in Laboratories I. P. Pavlova, V. M. Bekhtereva, etc.

Natural (field) is an experiment conducted in natural conditions. It is possible to include the included experiment when the researcher himself is a member of the experiment.
Traditional experiment - provides for the registration of a change in one variable.
Factor experiment - provides for the registration of a change in several variables.
A pilot experiment - is carried out in cases where the study area is unknown and no hypothesis system.
The decisive experiment is carried out when one of two competing hypotheses must be chosen one.
Control experiment - is carried out in order to verify any dependence.
Forming (training) experiment - is carried out mainly in differential psychology, personality psychology, age and pedagogical psychology. In order to study ways to form a personality, design, creation, testing and implementation of effective forms of training and education, psychoconsulting, psychocorrectional impact, etc.

Selected types of experiments are not isolated and frozen classification, it is quite conditional as any other. Some types of experiments may be leading, defining, others can be used as an additional, entering the general paradigm of psychological research.

3. The main characteristics of the experiment

Empirical research is one of the types of research that uses experienced techniques of knowledge.

The experiment as a psychological research method involves the active intervention of the researcher in the vital activity of the subject in order to create the conditions in which any psychological fact is detected. The advantages of the experiment are: the active position of the observer, the possibility of repetition, strictly controlled conditions for the conduct. The disadvantages include artificial conditions, high costs for monitoring significant factors.

The experiment as a method is developing in a new time due to the rapid development of natural science. New time is the period of formation of natural science paradigms. At the origins of the tradition of testing theoretical statements by experimental (experimental) by the city of Galilee. In the works of Galilee, there was a turn in science: from the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Hierarchy of Galilee, he moved to the idea of \u200b\u200bmathematization. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe hierarchy argued the "cooding" of things: each thing, each object has its place in the universal hierarchical orderliness. The second idea claimed some targets of objects, which therefore were commensurate and calculated. This thought is the prerequisite of the experiment, because the experiment always requires measuring procedures. An experiment, on the one hand, is considered as an empirical (experienced) method, on the other, as a certain logic of the research of the researcher (the course of its reasoning in accordance with the rules).

In science, along with empirical, a mental experiment is used. A mental experiment acts with a sample, and not with a real object and evaluates the properties of an object without resorting to real experienced interaction. R. Gottsdanker Such an experiment is indicated as perfect, full of conformity. Unlike him, the experiment conducted during the experienced interaction allows known "unreliability". The empirical (experienced) experiment includes mental samples, assess them, but this is not the only defining experimental condition.

A mental experiment acts as a plan for reflection of the researcher, asking the course of the experiment. Thus, mental and empirical experiments are as opposed to, and are treated in connection with each other in a real study.

The empirical experiment (using mental planning forms) before the start of the actual empirical procedures corresponds to the regulations of scientific research. In order for the experiment to perform all its tasks, it should be carried out in accordance with the standards. The term "standard" characterizes all scientific activities and culture as a whole, which are regulated, since they include the use of the established (accepted, well-founded) methods of concepts and articles of thinking, which does not have a person who does not have scientific knowledge that does not perform the relevant activities. The standards of professional thinking of the scientist do not coincide with the rules of ordinary thinking and sometimes seem fairly artificial. This is because such standards are nadindividual, born and developed in science, and not in the activities of one person. The regulations of scientific thinking is a reflexed, ordered system of research methods, which causes the structuring of the subject.

Signs of the experimental paradigm are as follows: 1) Analytical approach, the use of variables, 2) Comparative approach, consideration of experimental effects as consequences of causal factors controlled by the researcher, 3) control over the conclusion about the influence of the considered factor on the psyche, an assessment of the possibility of rejecting or adopting a psychological hypothesis.

All this determine the formulation of psychological research standards as a scientific research. Science, according to M.K. Magamdashvili, this is something that a person treats how to more whole than he himself, and that he pulls it out of chaos, decay and scattering of ordinary, everyday life, from a spontaneous relationship to peace and to themselves.

The experiment checks the hypothesis of patterns, structure, causal relationship (dependencies). Dependence and impact are those words that indicate the experiment. The experiment involves the establishment of such connections that are not accidentally repeated, and also includes the impact of one element of communication to another.

The standard of experimental research is also separation of the concept of "experimentation" in a wide and narrow sense. In a broad sense, experimentation represents the creation of the definition conditions, managed by the test conditions of the tests. In a narrow sense, experimentation includes testing of causal hypotheses - assumptions about causal relations.

But the experimental technique began to make a few other ways soon. The essential stage was in this regard for the study of the city of Ebbigauz about memory (see chapter about memory). Instead of studying the exclusively relationship between physical irritants, physiological processes and related phenomena of consciousness, Ebbigauz sent an experiment to study the course of the psychological process in certain objective conditions.

The experiment in psychophysics emerged in the border area of \u200b\u200bpsychophysics and psychophysiology began to move from elementary processes of sensation to higher mental processes; With this promotion in other areas there was also a change in the very nature of the experiment. From studying the ratio of a separate physical stimulus or physiological stimulus and a corresponding mental process, he came to the study of the patterns of the course of mental processes themselves under certain conditions. From the external cause physical facts have become the conditions of the mental process. The experiment switched to the study of its internal laws. Since then, and mainly in recent years, the experiment has received very diverse forms and widespread use in various fields of psychology - in the psychology of animals, in general psychology and in the psychology of the child. At the same time, some of the newest experiments are distinguished by the large rigor of the technique; For simplicity, the grace and accuracy of the results are sometimes not inferior to the best samples created by such mature experimental sciences, such as physics.

A number of chapters of modern psychology can already rely on accurate experimental data. The modern psychology of perception is especially rich in them.

Three considerations were put forward against the laboratory experiment. Indicated:

) on the artificiality of the experiment,

) on analytical and abstract experiment

) By complicating the role of the experimenter.

The artificiality of the experiment or its remoteness from life is not due to the fact that in the experiment some complicating conditions occur in life situations are turned off. An artificial experiment becomes, only since the conditions for the studied phenomenon falls in it. Thus, the experiments of Ebbigauz with meaningless material are artificial, since they do not take into account the semantic links, meanwhile, as in most cases, these relationships play a significant role in memory. If the theory of memory of Ebbigauz was essentially correct, i.e. if only mechanical repetitions, purely associative connections determined reproduction, Ebbigauz's experiments would not be artificial. The essence of the experiment, in contrast to simple observation, is determined not by artificial conditions in which it is produced, but the impact of the experimenter to the process to be studied. Therefore, the artificiality of the traditional laboratory experiment must be overcome primarily within the experimental method.

Very complex and significant is the question of the impact of the impact of the experimenter on the subject. To overcome the difficulties that arise in connection with this sometimes seek to eliminate the immediate imperimenter's impact and to build an experiment so that the very situation, and not direct intervention of the experimenter (instruction, etc.) caused the acts to be studied at the subject. However, since the experiment on the very creature always includes directly or indirect impact of the experimenter, the question is not so much to eliminate this impact, as if it is to correctly take into account and organize it.

Given all this, it is necessary:

) Transform an experiment from the inside to overcome the artificiality of the traditional experiment;

) To supplement the experiment with other methodological means. To resolve the same tasks:

) Methodical options are introduced, which are intermediate forms between experiment and observation, and other auxiliary methods.

A peculiar version of the experiment representing the intermediate form between observation and experiment is the method of the so-called natural experiment proposed by A.F. Lazur.

Its main tendency to combine experimental studies with the naturalness of the conditions is very valuable and significantly. Specifically, this tendency in the Lazur in its method of natural experiment is implemented as follows: with the method of a natural experiment, the experimental effects are subject to the conditions in which the activities have been studied, the same activity of the subject is observed in its natural flow.

A.F. Lazur avoided the direct impact on the child in the interests of "naturalness". But in reality, the child develops in conditions of education and training, i.e., in a certain way of organized impact on it. Compliance with natural development conditions Therefore, it does not require eliminating any impact at all. The impact built by the type of pedagogical process is quite natural. We introduce it to the experiment, thus implementing a new version of the "natural" experiment, which should, in our opinion, occupy a central place in the method of psychological and pedagogical research of the child.

Therefore, each psychological discipline has its own technique other than the methods of others; Methods of psychology of animals are different from human psychology methods: self-surveillance disappears, and other methods are converted. And each individual problem has its own special techniques designed to study it. In connection with the definition of the subject of psychology, only the main types of methods and the general principles of their construction are planned here.

4. Assessment of the quality of the psychological experiment

This disadvantage refers to all methods of research based on self-control, that is, associated with the use of speech and behavioral consciously controlled reactions. There are two main varieties of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other by studying the psychology and behavior of people in conditions remote or close to reality. The natural experiment is organized and carried out in conventional life conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere with the occurring events, fixing them as they unfold themselves.

The laboratory experiment involves the creation of a certain artificial situation in which the property studied can be best studied. The data obtained in a natural experiment is best complied with the typical life behavior of the individual, the real psychology of people, but not always accurate due to the lack of an experimental opportunity to strictly control the influence of all sorts of factors on the studied property. The results of the laboratory experiment, on the contrary, won accuracy, but are inferior to the degree of naturalness - the conformity of life.

The main features of the experiment, resulting in its strength, are as follows.

) In the experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he studied, instead of waiting, as with objective observation, until the random flow of phenomena gives him the opportunity to observe it.

) Having the opportunity to cause a studied phenomenon, the experimenter may vary, change the conditions under which the phenomenon proceeds, instead of as if with a simple observation, take them as such as it gives them the case.

) Insulating individual conditions and changing one of them when saving unchanged others, the experiment thus reveals the value of the individual conditions and establishes the patterns that determine the process being studied by it. The experiment, thus, a very powerful methodological means for identifying patterns.

) Revealing the patterns between phenomena, the experimenter may vary not only the conditions themselves in the sense of their presence or absence, but also their quantitative relations. As a result of the experiment, the quantitative patterns allowing mathematical formulation. Basically, precisely thanks to the experiment, natural science came to the discovery of the laws of nature.

5. Specificity of the organization of experimental communication

Psychological research is a complex multi-step research work, which may include various methods: non-experimental (observation, conversation, etc.); experiment; Psychodiagnostic examination (measurement). As already noted, the fundamental difference between the experiment and psychological examination is that the experiment acts as the main method of checking the causal hypotheses (about causal relations and dependencies), and the psychological (psychodiagnostic) survey is a measuring procedure designed to identify the researchers (diagnostics) Facts, collect the necessary empirical data, which only during subsequent processing by other methods can be interpreted and analyzed in order to identify relationships, including causal. At the same time, in the procedures for conducting an experiment and psychological examination, many general points. And a conscientious researcher, conducting a psychological examination, seeks to bring the conditions for its holding to experimental to the most important.

Therefore, in this chapter, considering the procedural features of the experiment and psychological examination, we will dwell only at distinctive moments for them.

The main rules and requirements for experiment should be maintained in the psychological examination.

The researcher (experimenter) must have the necessary professional and personal qualities: to understand and realize, understand the objectives of the study, it is good to know the procedure for the experiment (examination) and the rules for its conduct, possess the methods of data processing and evaluating results, be able to control themselves, to have sufficient emotional balance, community and tacty.

Experimental psychological studies have a large and versatile significance both for the most psychological science, and for practical study of the psychological characteristics of the social sample under study.

The psychological experiment allows you to cause arbitrarily mental processes that are subject to either theoretical study, or an improvement, correction of a particular person, not expecting the moment when they arise involuntarily in normal activities.

Arbitrary activation of mental processes allows relevant objective registration of the results of the test, complemented by the same targeted observation of all its external manifestations.

The experimenter, appropriately changing the experimental conditions, affects the flow of activated mental processes, learns to be given to a certain extent to manage them, observe them from various sides and to understand more deeply.

The experiment makes it possible to study the manifestation of psychological phenomena not only by their qualitative originality, but also to estimate them, measure the quantitative side using the apparatus of mathematical and statistical analysis.

By setting the various activities studied in the process of psychological experiment in the same conditions, observing the manifestations of their mental characteristics and registering the corresponding indicators, you can get comparable empirical data that helps to deepen the representations of the range of possible changes, identify the causal relations of the studied mental phenomena.

The most valuable data is obtained with repeated experimental psychological studies, and even more so during the Longitudinal studies. They allow, on the one hand, clarify the results, and on the other - to identify the essential relationships, trends, the patterns of development of the test quality. A deep, full-scale psychological study includes various research methods: psychological observation, laboratory experiment or field (i.e., conducted in artificial or natural conditions), a traditional experiment (change of one variable), a factor experiment (change in several variables), a pilot experiment (When the study area is unknown and the hypothesis system is absent), a decisive, control, forming (training) experiment, psychological (psychodiagnostic) conversation, etc.

An experimental psychological study can be carried out not only with the help of special apparatus, tables, blanks, but also in the form of a psychological examination using questionnaires, questionnaires, tests, self-reporters, expert assessments. Therefore, under the term "equipment" for experimental psychological research, both the relevant special equipment and the stopwatch and specially decorated tables, forms, questionnaires are understood.

Accordingly, hardware and blank experimental psychological studies, which can be individual and group.

A conductive psychological experiment is called a researcher (experimenter), a person (or person), which is the object of the study - the subject (MI).

Along with the positive moments, the psychological experiment has a number of features that should be considered when applied. Not all mental phenomena is easy to activate and study under laboratory conditions. So, less than others can be laboratory study of volitional features, most character traits, interests and direction of a person.

The results of the psychological experiment largely depend on the attitude towards it. With all the art of the experimenter, it is not always possible to encourage the subject to show all its abilities in the experiment, consider research with sufficient interest. Therefore, a psychologist in the design and conduct of the experiment should take all measures to make it meaningful for the subject and stimulate the test to the best task.

The researcher must always remember that, according to the results of one psychological experiment, it is impossible to reasonably judge any personality line, since in addition to the experiment studied on the results, other features of the psyche always affect. Consequently, the conclusions about the development of a certain mental characteristic should be done on the basis of a number of various experiments, each of which activates the considered side of the psyche (mental phenomenon), while comparing the results of experiments with data obtained through other methods: conversations, observations, natural (field) experiment , psychodiagnostic examination.

A significant disadvantage of a laboratory psychological experiment is that with a change in the type of activity becomes another and psychological structure of studied mental processes. For example, attention that is studied in the laboratory, and the attention of students in the classroom or worker in the process of its activities is far from identical mental phenomena.

It should always be remembered that the results of the psychological experiment depend on education, cultural development, special knowledge, vital and professional experience of the subject. This circumstance is once again confirmed that it is unacceptable to simplified, the mechanical interpretation of materials obtained as a result of the experiment (especially with methods aimed at studying the intelligence, thinking, cognitive features).

When conducting a psychological experiment, a number of general provisions must be taken into account.

Everyone cannot be learned right away. You should always know what psychological qualities in this study are being studied most intently and which are the background. Along with this, there is not a single method of experimental psychological research that would not have mobilized and did not identify a much larger number of human mental qualities, although in different degrees and in various relationships with each other. Therefore, it is necessary to be able to interpret its results and compare them with these methods. This is achieved on the basis of knowledge of the general foundations of psychology and the accumulation of experience in the use of various methods.

The quantitative indicators obtained must be complemented and referred to by observation and conversation data. Without observation during the experiment and conversation, the indicators may be incorrectly interpreted.

The assessment of one or another mental quality on the basis of a single experiment may be erroneous. Especially dangerous conclusions on a single experiment, which showed or revealed negative, low qualities.

Each experimenter, examining a number of persons, in the process of accumulation of experience should be learn to select the necessary methods, analyze and compare both observations during the experiment and quantitative indicators of each method, and most importantly - to establish their relationships with each other and with these other observations.

Conducting experimental psychological research to identify the peculiarities of age-related dynamics requires a psychologist of good knowledge of the features and patterns of the development of the psyche of the subjects of this age.

Experimental psychological research (experiments, psychodiagnostic surveys) must be carried out under favorable conditions. The subjects should be in the cheerful condition, survived, rested. The most favorable study time is the morning, two hours after lifting, but to any heavy loads; If it turns out that the test well slept, then the experiment is better to postpone.

The attention of the subject must be completely absorbed by the task; If, for example, it turned out that at the time of study intensively experiencing because of his training, personal failures or trouble, the experiment should also be transferred to another time.

It is very important to create a serious tested, but a fairly calm attitude towards the experiment. It is necessary to avoid everything that might be worried about the subject, cause it excessive emotional arousal, which negatively affects the course of the experiment. Of course, this condition can be systematically violated if the subject of study is the degree of emotional excitability, the ability to own themselves and other features of the emotional-volitional sphere.

The subject (even with the purpose of vocational guidance or selection) should not be created that its fate depends on the results of the experiment. At the same time, it is necessary that he understands that it should work with full attention that the experiments carried out helps to assess the features of its abilities.

The more the conditions for the experiment (examination) differ, the harder to judge, to what extent the test results depend on its studied features, and in what - from the influence of conditions and side factors.

6. Organization and conduct of the reproductive study

Identification of drinks with cola

We conducted this research after the Friendler J. Tyumen.

The purpose of our study is to accurately repeat the experiment of precursors to determine the reliability, reliability, objectivity of the results obtained.

Analyze literature.

Get the experience of an independent study by the experiment method.

Master the cultural form of the experimental report.

The purpose of the study of Friederik J. Tyuman was to determine whether the relative inability of the subjects identified in previous studies was not correctly identified by the brands of drinks with a consequence of any methodological deficiencies in the experiment itself. The main changes in the experimental plan are: from the subjects received information about the level of consumption of drinks with cola; The subjects reported in advance which drinks they will be tasting and identified; A method of pair comparisons has been used upon presentation of beverage samples.

The experiment participated 40 people aged 17 to 37 years old, they were all either students of the CAP.

First, the subjects were asked to fill out a questionnaire dedicated to their habits regarding the consumption of drinks with a cola and preferred brands of these beverages.

All 100% of respondents have tried drinks that we used in our experiment.

In view of the fact that in Krasnoyarsk there is no such beverage as a "royal crown", then we considered it possible to replace it with a drink "Crazy Cola", produced by Picroy LLC.

Drinks with cola were presented to each subject separately indoors specifically reserved for the experiment. In this room it was half consistent, which made it possible to exclude the possibility of analyzing the visual characteristics of the drinks.

Each subject received the following instructions:

I will ask you to try and identify some drinks with a cola. Each time I will set two glasses in front of you: one on the left, and the other to your right. You should try two drinks offered to you in any order and then tell me what brand's drink and in what glass, in your opinion, was. Make sure to accidentally not change the glasses in places in the tasting process, that is, the left glass should always stay on the left of you, and the right one is right. After you finish tasting one pair of samples, rinse the mouth well and make a few sips from a glass with water. Then I will offer you another couple of drinks.

For this study uses three types of beverages with a cola: "Coca-Cola", "Pepsi-Cola" and "Crazy-Cola". Even if you are not sure what drink was in a matter of one case, call me all the same brand, which seems to you the most likely. The pair will always drink different brands, that is, you will never have to compare two glasses with a drink of one brand. Do you have any questions?

The subject was presented six pairs of drinks using pair comparisons, one pair of drinks at a time. Each brand was made by the subject four times, that is, every one of them had to take 12 solutions.

The procedure for presenting pairs of incentives was determined randomly. Each glass with a stimulus drink contained 50 permissions at a temperature of about 5 ° C.

results

To determine how much the ability of the subjects correctly identify the brands of beverages differs from random distribution, we were used by the Chi-Square criterion to be used by the J. Tyumen Friederik. As applied from table. 11.1, the criterion of the chi-square for Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola is statistically significant at 0.01 levels of reliability, whereas for the Crazy Cola, they cannot be called meaningful. Data analysis indicates that the significance of the distinction of the "Coca-Cola" and "peps-cola" is due to the large number of cases of the correct identification of these brands; For example, almost two times more subjects than expected, were able to correctly identify these brands at least in three cases out of four.

The results presented in Table. 1, indicate that the ability to correctly identify the drink did not depend on the level of consumption of the test beverages with a cola, that is, the number of cases of proper identification is approximately equally in groups with high, medium and low levels of drink consumption with cola. A further analysis of the data showed that the ability to correctly identify the brand of the presented beverage does not depend on whether the test it is beloved by its beloved or not.

Table 1.

Brand Beverage with Colakolicism of Cases of Proper Identification0123I4 ?2Coca-Cola5716127,37Pepsi-Cola49141311,219141311,21192,27 all Marks5,413,213,95,5

Preliminary message subjects that brand what beverages they will have to identify during the experiment, made it possible to avoid the name of beverages of irrelevant brands, as well as eliminate the unjustified frequent recording of those brands that are most widely advertised.

This study briefly demonstrated that certain brands of drinks with a cola are quite possible to identify them to taste. Significant criterion of the chi-square, obtained for Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola, are due to the large number of cases of correct identification of these brands. The inability of the subjects correctly identify the Crazy Cola drink is likely to be explained by the lack of experience in the consumption of drink of this brand. Approximately 58% of the subjects said they did not drink the Crazy Cola, at least within 6 months before the experiment.

No relationship was found between the ability of the subjects to correctly identify the beverage containing the Cola, and the level of consumption of this drink (that is, the average number of beverage consumption with a cola during the week). In addition, the subjects correctly identified the drink that preference is preferred is no more often than other brands. Thus, it can be assumed that the subjects need some minimum experience of the recent use of a certain drink to identify it correctly, but outside this minimum experience, the level of drink consumption (even high) does not play any role.

The study conducted by FRIDERIC G. Tyumen confirmed the validity and reliability of its results.

Conclusion

So, by analyzing psychological, pedagogical and methodological literature, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Experiment is one of the main methods of scientific knowledge. It differs from surveillance with active interference in the situation by the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and the registration of related changes in the behavior of the object.

The experiment properly supplied allows you to check hypotheses about causal relationships (causal hypotheses), not limited to the establishment of communication (correlation) between variables.

The specificity of the experiment as a method of psychological research is that it is purposefully and thoughtfully creating an artificial situation in which the property studied is allocated, manifests itself and is estimated to be best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows you to more reliable than all other methods, draw conclusions about the causal relations of the investigated phenomenon with other phenomena, scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and development. However, to organize and carry out a real, responsible psychological experiment in practice is not easy, so in scientific research it is less common than other methods.

This disadvantage refers to all methods of research based on self-control, that is, associated with the use of speech and behavioral consciously controlled reactions.

List of used literature

1. Age and pedagogical psychology. / Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M.: Enlightenment. - 1984. P. 232

Vygotsky hp Collected Works. At 6 t. T. 1. M.: Pedagogy, 1982. - C. - 40, 56, 59.

Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. - M.: Book House "University", 1999. P. 33, 34, 45, 56.

Gottsdanker R. Basics of a psychological experiment. - M., 1982. - C.16-34

Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. - SPb., 2000.

Izmailov I.A., Mikhalevskaya M.B. General Psychology Workshop: General Psychometric. - M., 1983.

Konstantinov V.V. Experimental psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2006.

Kornilova i.e. Introduction to the Psychological Experiment. - I: MSU, 1997. - P.30-35

Kulikov L.V. Psychological research. - St. Petersburg, 1994

Rubinstein S.A. Basics of general psychology. St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 1999.

Slobodchikov L.S., Isaev E.I. Human psychology. - M.: League Press, 1996. - 457 p.

Modern psychology / edited by V.I. Druzhinina. - M.: "Pedagogy Press", 1999. - 398 p.

Titchener E. Methods of psychological research // Reader to attention. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1976. - 26-46

Tyumen F.J. Identification of beverages with cola // R. Solsco et al. Experimental psychology: practical course. - St. Petersburg., M., 2002.

Finding D.N. Psychological research. - M.: Science, 1966. - 451 p.

Tutoring

Need help to study what language themes?

Our specialists will advise or have tutoring services for the subject of interest.
Send a request With the topic right now, to learn about the possibility of receiving consultation.

Psychological experiment - the experience held in special conditions for obtaining new scientific knowledge through the targeted intervention of the researcher in the vital activity of the subject. This ordered study, during which the researcher directly changes a certain factor (or factors), supports the rest unchanged and observes the results of systematic changes. See experiment as learning variables

In a wide sense, the psychological experiment sometimes includes, except for the experiment itself, such research methods such as testing). However, in a narrow understanding (and traditionally in experimental psychology), the experiment is considered an independent method.

Specificity of psychological experiment

The psychological experiment is largely different from experiments in other areas of science.

In a psychological experiment it is very difficult to be sure that we are studying what we want to explore.

If the chemist is studying iron, he knows that he studies. What does a psychologist study when studying the psyche? The psyche as a construct is impossible to objectively observe and it can be found about its activities, only based on its manifestations, for example, in the form of a certain behavior.

The experimenter wants to explore how the conditions of illumination affect the efficiency of work. It changes illumination, and people react not to the number of light, but that next to them is such a cute experimentator ...

Water is not boiling due to the fact that it is transfused into another flask. An experiment conducted over a person can influence it so hard that the results speak more about the reaction to the experimenter and the experiment, rather than on the peculiarities of the behavior of a particular person. The identity of the experimenter is important in the psychological experiment: it is often one experimenter, people show some results, and others - others. The test dictated instructions, but - how? People are important to attitude towards them, people react subtly to suggestion from the experimenter, which he himself may not be aware.

Types of experiments

Organization of psychological experiment

The psychological experiment begins with the instructions, more precisely, with the establishment of certain relations between the subject and the experimenter. Another task that stands in front of the researcher is the formation of a sample: with whom the experiment should be carried out so that the results can be considered reliable. The experiment finale is the processing of its results, the interpretation of the data obtained and the presentation of their psychological public. See →

Scientific Quality of Psychological Experiment

The scientific quality of the psychological experiment is objectivity, reliability, validity and accuracy of the techniques used in it. See →

Features and limitations of the experiment as a research method

The experiment is one of the most respected methods of scientific research, but he has both its advantages and its cons. He is reliable, but bulk, he impresses, but not always ethical. And most importantly - what does he prove? Cm.

V.V. Nicandrov indicates that the achievement of the main objective of the experiment - the maximum possible unambiguity in understanding the links between the phenomena of internal mental life and their external manifestations is achieved due to the following basic characteristics of the experiment:

1) the experimental initiative in the manifestation of his psychological facts of interest;

2) the ability to vary the conditions for the emergence and development of mental phenomena;

3) strict control and fixation of the conditions and the proceeding process;

4) isolation of some and focusing other factors resulting in the studied phenomena, which makes it possible to identify the patterns of their existence;

5) the ability to repeat the experimental conditions for multiple checks of the obtained scientific data and their accumulation;

6) Variation of conditions for quantitative estimates of the detected patterns.

Thus, the psychological experiment can be defined as a method in which the researcher himself causes its interests that interests it and changes the conditions for their flow in order to establish the causes of these phenomena and the patterns of their development. In addition, the scientific facts obtained can be repeatedly reproduced due to manageability and strict control of the conditions, which makes it possible to check, as well as the accumulation of quantitative data, on the basis of which one can judge the typical or chance of studied phenomena.

4.2. Types of psychological experiment

Experiments are several species. Depending on the fashion organization Laboratory, natural and field experiments are isolated. Laboratory The experiment is carried out in special conditions. The researcher is planned and purposefully affects the object of study to change its condition. The advantage of a laboratory experiment can be considered strict control over all conditions, as well as the use of special equipment for measuring. The disadvantage of the laboratory experiment is the difficulty of transferring the received data to the real conditions. The test in the laboratory experiment is always aware of its participation in it, which may cause motivational distortion.

Natural The experiment is carried out in real conditions. His dignity is that the study of the object is carried out in the context of everyday life, so the data obtained is easily transferred to reality. The subjects are not always informed about their participation in the experiment, so do not give motivational distortion. Disadvantages - the impossibility of control of all conditions, unexpected interference and distortion.

Field The experiment is carried out according to the scheme of natural. It is possible to use portable equipment that allows you to more accurately register the data obtained. The subjects are informed about participation in the experiment, but the usual situation reduces the level of motivational distortion.

Depending on the objectives of the study distinguish search, pilotable and confirming experiments. Search The experiment is aimed at finding a causal relationship between phenomena. It is carried out at the initial stage of the study, it allows you to formulate a hypothesis, allocate independent, dependent and side variables (see 4.4) and determine how to control their control.

Pilotage The experiment is a trial experiment, the first in the series. It is carried out on a small sample, without strict control of variables. The pilot experiment allows to eliminate gross mistakes in the wording of the hypothesis, specify the goal, clarify the methodology for the experiment.

Confirming The experiment is aimed at establishing a type of functional communication and refinement of quantitative relations between variables. It is carried out at the final stage of the study.

Depending on the character of influence On the subject, there is a statement, forming and control experiments. Standing The experiment includes measuring the state of the object (subject or group of subjects) to active impact on it, the diagnosis of the initial state, the establishment of causal relationships between phenomena. Purpose forming The experiment is the use of ways to actively develop or the formation of any properties of the subjects. Control The experiment is a re-measurement of the state of the object (subject or subject group) and comparison with the state before the form of the forming experiment, as well as with the state in which the control group is not obtained by experimental impact.

By features of influence The experimenter on an independent variable is distinguished by a provoked experiment and the experiment referenced. Provoked The experiment is an experience in which the experimenter itself changes an independent variable, with the results observed by the experimenter (types of test reactions) are considered provoked. P. Fress calls this type of classic experiment. Experiment, which is referred to - This is an experience in which changes in an independent variable are carried out without an experimental intervention. To this type of psychological experiment, they are resorted when independent variables have an impact on the subject, significantly stretched in time (for example, a system of upbringing, etc.). If the impact on the subject can cause a serious negative physiological or psychological violation, then such an experiment cannot be carried out. However, there are cases when negative impact (for example, brain injury) occurs in reality. Subsequently, such cases can be summarized and studied.

4.3. Structure of psychological experiment

The main components of any experiment are:

1) subject (subject subject or group);

2) Experimentator (researcher);

3) stimulation (the experimenter selected by the experimenter on the subject);

4) the response of the test for stimulation (its mental reaction);

5) Terms of experience (additional to stimulation of exposure, which can affect the test response).

The test response is an external reaction, according to which one can judge the processes occupying in its internal, subjective space. These processes themselves are the result of impact on it stimulation and experimental conditions.

If the response (reaction) of the subject indicate the symbol R, and the impact on it experimental situations (as a set of impacts of stimulation and experimental conditions) - symbol S, then their ratio can be expressed by the formula R. = \u003d F (S). That is, the reaction is a function of the situation. But this formula does not take into account the active role of the psyche, personality of man (P). In fact, the reaction of a person on the situation is always mediated by the psyche, personality. Thus, the ratio between the main elements of the experiment can be recorded by the following formula: R. = f. (R, S).

P. Freste and J. Piage Depending on the objectives of the study, three classical types of relations between these three components of the experiment are distinguished: 1) functional relations; 2) structural relations; 3) Differential relations.

Functional relations Characterized by the variability of responses (R) of the subject (P) with systematic qualitative or quantitative changes in the situation (s). Graphically, this relationship can be submitted to the following scheme (Fig. 2).

Examples of functional relations identified in experiments: change in sensations (R) Depending on the intensity of impact on the senses (S); Memorization (R) from the number of repetitions (s); Emotional response intensity (R) on the action of various emotionic factors (S); Development of adaptation processes (R) in time (S) etc.

Structural relations reveal through the response system (R1, R2, RN) to various situations (SV S2, SN). Relations between individual responses are structured into the system reflecting the personality structure (P). Schematically, it looks like this (Fig. 3).

Examples of structural relations: Emotional reaction system (RP R2, RN) on the action of stressors (SV S2 SN); Solution efficiency (R1, R2,Rn) different intellectual tasks (S1, S2, SN) etc.

Differential relations revealed through reaction analysis (R1, R2, Rn) different subjects (P1, P2, PN) on the same situation (S). The scheme of these relations is such (Fig. 4).

Examples of differential relations: the difference in the reaction rate of different people, national differences in the expressive manifestation of emotions, etc.

4.4. Experimental variables and methods for their control

To clarify the ratio of all factors included in the experiment, the concept of "variable" was introduced. There are three types of variables: independent, dependent and optional.

Independent variables. The factor variable by the experimenter itself is called independent variable (NP).

As a NP, the experiment may act as the conditions in which the activities of the subject, the characteristic of tasks are carried out, the execution of which is required from the subject, the characteristics of the very subject (age, sex, other differences of the subjects, emotional states and other properties of the subject or interacting with him). Therefore, it is customary to allocate the following types NP: Situational, instructive and personal.

Situational NP is most often not included in the structure of the experimental task executed by the subject. Nevertheless, they have a direct impact on its activities and may vary by the experimenter. Situational NP includes various physical parameters, such as illumination, temperature, noise level, as well as room size, furnishings, equipment, etc. External observer or group of people. V.N. Druzhinin points to the features of communication and interaction of the subject and experimental as a special kind of situational NP. This aspect is paying great attention. In experimental psychology, there is a separate direction, which is called "Psychology of the Psychological Experiment".

Instructive NP are connected directly to the experimental task, its high-quality and quantitative characteristics, as well as methods of its execution. Instructive NP Experimentator can manipulate more or less freely. It can vary the material of the task (for example, a numeric, verbal or shaped), the type of response response (for example, verbal or non-verbal), the estimation scale, etc. Big capabilities are to instruct the subjects, informing them about the purpose of the experimental task. The experimenter can change the means that are offered to the subject to perform the task, to set obstacles before it, use the system of rewards and punishments during the task and so on.

Personal NP is controlled features of the subject. Usually, the state of the experiment participant acts as such features, which the researcher can change, for example, various emotional states or state of efficiency.

Each test, participating in the experiment, has many unique physical, biological, psychological, socio-psychological and social characteristics, which cannot manage the experimenter. In some cases, these uncontrollable features should be considered additional variables and apply to them to control the methods of control, which will be described below. However, in differential psychological studies, when applying factor plans, unmanaged personal variables can act as one of the independent variables (for details about factor plans, see 4.7).

Researchers also distinguish different views Independent variables. Depending on the scale representation You can highlight high-quality and quantitative NPs. Qualitative NP corresponds to various gradations of the name scales. For example, the emotional states of the subject can be represented by the states of joy, wrath, fear, surprise, etc. Methods of performing tasks may include the presence or absence of tested testers. Quantitative NP correspond to rank, proportional or interval scales. For example, the time settled for the task, the number of tasks, the amount of remuneration based on the results of solving problems can be used as quantitative NP.

Depending on the number of levels of manifestation Independent variables distinguish between duplex and multi-level NPs. Two-level NP have two levels of manifestation, multi-level - Three or more levels. Depending on the number of levels of manifestation of NP, various experimental plans are built.

Dependent variables. Factor, a change in which is a consequence of changes in an independent variable, is called dependent variable (Zp). The dependent variable is a component of the response response, which is directly interested in the researcher. Physiological, emotional, behavioral responses and other psychological characteristics, which can be registered during psychological experiments, can act as an RCP.

Depending on the the method with which you can register changes, Allocate sn:

S. observed directly;

S. requiring physical instrument for measurement;

S. requiring psychological measurement.

To zp, observed directly are verbal and non-verbal behavioral manifestations that are clearly and unambiguously appreciated by an external observer, such as a refusal of activities, crying, a certain statement of the subject, etc. to the SP requiring physical instrument for registration, The physiological (pulse, the size of blood pressure, etc.) and psycho-physiological reactions (reaction time, latent time, duration, speed of action, etc.). To zp requiring psychological measurement Such characteristics as the level of claims, the level of development or formation of certain qualities, forms of behavior, etc. For psychological measurement of indicators, standardized procedures - tests, questionnaires, etc. Some behavioral parameters can be measured, T . e. Definitely recognized and interpreted only by specially trained observers or experts.

Depending on the quantities of parameters included in the dependent variable distinguish one-dimensional, multidimensional and fundamental sn. One-dimensional SP is represented by the only parameter, the changes of which are studied in the experiment. An example of one-dimensional SP can serve as the speed of the sensorotor reaction. Multidimensional SP is represented by the set of parameters. For example, attentiveness can be assessed by the volume of the viewed material, the amount of distracts, the number of correct and erroneous responses, etc. Each parameter can be fixed independently. Fundamental SP represents a variable of complex nature, whose parameters have some known relations among themselves. In this case, some parameters act as arguments, and the actual dependent variable is as a function. For example, the fundamental measurement of the level of aggression can be considered as the function of its individual manifestations (mimic, verbal, physical, etc.).

The dependent variable should have such a basic characteristic as sensitivity. Sensitivity ZP is its sensitivity to a change in the level of an independent variable. If, with a change in an independent variable, the dependent variable does not change, then the latter is nonsense and the experiment does not make sense in this case. Two options for the manifestation of the nonsense of ZP are known: "The effect of the ceiling" and the "floor effect". The "Ceiling Effect" is observed, for example, in the case when the task is so simple that it performs all the tests regardless of age. "Floor effect", on the contrary, occurs when the task is so difficult that none of the subjects can cope with it.

There are two basic methods for fixing CP changes in a psychological experiment: immediate and delayed. Direct The method applies, for example, in experiments on short-term memorization. The experimenter immediately after repeating a number of incentives fixes their number reproduced by the subject. The deferred method is used in the case when between exposure And the effect is a certain period of time (for example, when determining the effect of the number of bought foreign words to the success of the translation of the text).

Additional variables (DP) is a concomitant stimulation of the subject affecting its response. The totality of DP consists, as a rule, from two groups: external experimental conditions and internal factors. Accordingly, they are called by external and internal DP. TO external DP include the physical environment of experience (illumination, temperature regime, sound background, spatial characteristics of the room), parameters of equipment and equipment (design of measuring instruments, working noise, etc.), temporal parameters of the experiment (start time, duration, etc.), Personality of the experimenter. TO internal DP includes the mood and motivation of the subjects, their attitude to the experimental and experiments, their psychological plants, inclinations, knowledge, skills, skills and experience in this form of activity, the level of fatigue, well-being, etc.

Ideally, the researcher seeks all additional variables to reduce no or at least to a minimum to allocate "in its pure form" the connection between independent and dependent variables. There are several basic ways to control the effect of external DP: 1) Elimination of external influences; 2) the constant of the conditions; 3) balancing; 4) counterbalance.

Elimination of external influences It is the most radical method of control. It consists in full excess of the external environment of any external DP. The laboratory creates conditions for insulating the tests from sounds, lights, vibrational influences, etc. The most striking example is the experiment on sensory deprivation, conducted on volunteers in a special chamber, fully excluding any irritants from the external environment. It should be noted that the elimination of the effects of DP is almost impossible, and it is not always necessary, since the results obtained under the elimination of external influences are unlikely to be transferred to reality.

Next control method - creating constant conditions. The essence of this method is to make the effects of DP permanent and the same for all subjects throughout experience. In particular, the researcher seeks to make permanent space-time experimental conditions, the technique of its conduct, equipment, the presentation of the instructions, etc. With the careful use of this method of control, it is possible to avoid large errors, but the problem of transferring the results of the experiment in conditions that differ in experimental results It remains problematic.

In cases where there is no possibility to create and maintain constant conditions throughout the experiment, resort to the method balancing. This method is applied, for example, in a situation where the external DP is not identified. In this case, balancing will be used by the control group. The study of the control and experimental groups is carried out in the same conditions with the only difference that there is no impact of an independent variable in the control group. Thus, the change in the dependent variable in the control group is due only by external DP, and in the experimental - joint action of an external additional and independent variable.

If the external DP is known, the balancing is the effects of each of its value in combination with each level of an independent variable. In particular, such an external DP, as the experimenter, in combination with an independent variable (under test), will lead to the creation of four experimental series:

1) a man experimentator - men subjects;

2) a man experimentator - women subjects;

3) Woman experimenter - men subjects;

4) Woman experimental - women testes.

In more complex experiments, a balancing of several variables can be used simultaneously.

Contamination As a method for controlling external DPs is practiced most often when the experiment includes several series. The subject turns out to be in different conditions consistently, however, previous conditions may change the effect of influencing the subsequent. To eliminate the "sequence effect" arising in this case, the experimental conditions are presented in various procedures. For example, in the first series of experiment, the first group makes the solution of intellectual tasks from more simple to more complex, and the second - from more complex to simpler. In the second series, on the contrary, the first group makes the solution of intellectual tasks from more complex to simpler, and the second - from the simplest to more complex. The counterbalance is applied in cases where there is the possibility of several episodes of the experiment, but it should be borne in mind that a large number of attempts cause tensile tests.

Internal DP, as mentioned above, are factors in the identity of the subject. They have a very significant impact on the results of the experiment, their impact is quite difficult to check and take into account. Among the internal DP can be allocated permanent and non-permanent. Permanent Internal DPs during the experiment do not significantly change. If the experiment is carried out with one subject, then the permanent internal DP will be its gender, age, nationality. This group of factors can also include temperament, character, ability, the inclination of the subject, his interests, views, beliefs and other components of the general orientation of the individual. In the case of an experiment with a group of subjects, these factors acquire the nature of non-permanent dope, and then for leveling their effects, they are resorted to special methods for the formation of experimental groups (see 4.6).

TO non-permanent The inner DP includes the psychological and physiological characteristics of the subject, which can either change significantly in the course of the experiment, or to actuate (or disappear), depending on the purpose, tasks, the form, the form of the organization of the experiment. The first group of such factors is physiological and mental conditions, fatigue, addictive, acquisition of experience and skills in the process of performing an experimental task. The other group includes installation for this experience and this study, the level of motivation to this experimental activity, the attitude of the test to the experimentator and its role experimental, etc.

To adjust the effect of the impact of these variables on answers in different samples, there are a number of methods that are successfully used in experimental practice.

To eliminate the so-called serial effect The basis of which is addictive, uses a special order of presentation of incentives. This procedure was called "balanced alternating order", when incentives of different categories are presented symmetrically relative to the center of the stimulus series. The scheme of such a procedure looks like this: And in in a, Where BUT and IN - incentives of different categories.

To prevent influence on the response anxiety or inexperience Indicative or preliminary experiments are held. Their results are not taken into account when processing data.

To prevent the changeability of answers because accumulation of experience and skills In the process of experiment, the subject is offered the so-called "exhaustive practice". As a result of this practice, sustainable skills are developed for the experiment before the start of the experiment, and in further experiments, the experiments of the test from the factor of experience and skills will not be directly dependent.

In cases where it is necessary to minimize the impact on the response fatigue Resort to "Rotation Method". Its essence is that each subgroup of the subjects imposes a certain combination of incentives. A combination of such combinations completely exhausts all many possible options. For example, with three types of stimuli (A, B, B), each of them seems to be the first, second and third place in presentation of the subject. Thus, the first subgroup of incentives are presented in the order of the ABB, the second - ABB, the third - Bav, the fourth - BWA, the fifth - Vab, the Sixth - VAA.

The above methods of procedural equalization of internal non-permanent DP are applicable for both individual and group experiments.

Installation and motivation of subjects as internal non-permanent DP should be maintained at the same level during the entire experience. Installation As a readiness to perceive the stimulus and respond to it in a certain way created through the instruction that the experimenter gives the subject. In order for the installation to be exactly what is required by the task of the study, the instruction must be accessible to the subject and adequate to the tasks of the experiment. The unambiguity and ease of understanding of the instructions are achieved by its clarity and simplicity. In order to avoid the prevention variability, the instructions are recommended to read literally or in writing. Maintaining the original installation is controlled by the experimenter by permanent monitoring of the subject and is adjusted by reminding the appropriate instructions of the instructions.

Motivation The subject is considered mainly as an interest in this experiment. If there is no interest or weak, it is difficult to count on the fullness of the tests provided for in the experiment and the reliability of its responses. Too high interest, the "variety" is also fraught with the inadequacy of the test responses. Therefore, to obtain the initially acceptable level of motivation, the experimenter must most seriously approach the formation of the contingent of subjects and the selection of stimulating their motivation of factors. Competitions, various types of remuneration, interest in their indicators, professional interest, and others can act as such factors.

Psychophysiological states The subjects are recommended not only to maintain at one level, but also to optimize this level, i.e. the subjects must be in the "normal" state. It should be verified that before the experience of the test did not have super-informing experiences for him, it has enough time to participate in the experiment, it is not hungry, etc. During the experiment, it is not unnecessary to excite or suppress the test. If these conditions fail, the experiment is better to postpone.

Of the considered characteristics of variables and methods of their control, it becomes clear the need for careful preparation of the experiment during its planning. In real conditions of experimentation, 100% control of all variables is impossible to achieve, but various psychological experiments differ significantly from each other degree of control of variables. The following section is devoted to considering the quality of the evaluation of the quality of the experiment.

4.5. Experimental validity and reliability

Concepts are used to design and evaluate the experimental procedures: the ideal experiment, the experiment of full conformity and an infinite experiment.

Perfect experiment - This is an experiment organized in such a way that the experimenter changes only an independent variable, the dependent variable is controlled, and all other experimental conditions remain unchanged. The perfect experiment involves the equivalence of all subjects, the invariance of their characteristics in time, the absence of time itself. It can never be implemented in reality, since in life not only the parameters of the researchers are changing, but also a number of other conditions.

The correspondence of the real experiment is ideal expressed in such a characteristic as internal validity. Internal validity shows the accuracy of the results that the real experiment provides compared to the ideal. The more influence the change in the dependent variables, the conditions that are not controlled by the researcher, the lower the internal validity of the experiment, therefore, is more likely that the facts detected in the experiment are artifacts. High internal validity is the main sign of a well-performed experiment.

D. Campbell allocates the following factors threatening the inner validity of the experiment: factor of the background, factor of natural development, test factor, measurement error, statistical regression, non-random selection, screening. If they are not controlled, then lead to the appearance of appropriate effects.

Factor background (Stories) includes events that occur between the preliminary and final measurement and can cause changes in the dependent variable along with the influence of an independent variable. Factor natural Development It is related to the fact that changes in the level of the dependent variable may arise in connection with the natural development of the participants in the experiment (consultation, increase in fatigue, etc.). Factor testing It is the effect of preliminary measurements on the results of the following. Factor measurement errors associated with inaccuracy or changes in the procedure or method of measuring the experimental effect. Factor statistical regression It is manifested in the event that for participation in the experiment were selected tests with extreme indicators of any estimates. Factor non-random selection Accordingly, it is found in cases where, when forming a sample, the selection of participants was carried out in a non-random way. Factor clear It is manifested if the subjects are unevenly disposed of control and experimental groups.

The experimenter must take into account and, if possible, limit the influence of factors that threaten the inner validity of the experiment.

Experiment of full compliance - This is an experimental study in which all the conditions and their changes are responsible for reality. Approaching the real experiment to the experiment of full compliance is expressed in external validity. The degree of portability of the experimental results in reality depends on the level of external validity. External validity, by definition of R. Gottsdncker, affects the accuracy of the conclusions that the results of the real experiment compared with the experiment of full conformity. To achieve high external validity, it is necessary that the levels of additional variables in the experiment correspond to their levels in reality. An experiment that does not have external validity is considered incorrect.

The factors that threaten external validity are as follows:

Reactive effect (lies in reducing or increasing the susceptibility of the experimental influence due to previous measurements);

The effect of the interaction of selection and influence (it is that experimental impact will be significant only for participants in this experiment);

Factor of experimental conditions (may lead to the fact that the experimental effect may be observed only in these specially organized conditions);

The interference factor of influences (manifests itself upon presentation of one group of test sequences of mutually exclusive influences).

The care of the external validity of experiments is especially manifested by researchers working in the applied areas of psychology - clinical, pedagogical, organizational fields, since in the event of an unfuldeal study, its results will not be given when transferred them into real conditions.

Infinite experiment Ensures an unlimited number of experiments, samples for obtaining increasingly accurate results. Increasing the number of samples in an experiment with one subject leads to an increase reliability Experiment results. In experiments with a group of subjects, raising reliability occurs with an increase in the number of subjects. However, the essence of the experiment is precisely that on the basis of a limited number of samples or with the help of a limited group of subjects to identify causal relations between phenomena. Therefore, the infinite experiment is not only impossible, but also is meaningless. To achieve the high reliability of the experiment, the number of samples or the number of subjects must correspond to the variability of the phenomenon under study.

It should be noted that with an increase in the number of subjects, the external validity of the experiment increases, since its results can be transferred to a wider population. For experiments with a group of subjects, it is necessary to consider the issue of experimental samples.

4.6. Experimental samples

As mentioned above, the experiment can be carried out either with one subject or with a group of subjects. An experiment with one subject is carried out only in some specific situations. First, it is situations where individual differences of the subjects can be neglected, i.e., any person may be subjects (if its features are studied in contrast to the experiment, for example, from the animal). In other situations, on the contrary, the subject is a unique object (brilliant chess player, musician, artist, etc.). There are also situations where the subject requires special competence as a result of training or extraordinary life experience (the only survivor in the aviation catastrophe, etc.). One subject is limited and in cases where the repetition of this experiment with the participation of other subjects is impossible. For experiments with one subject, special experimental plans have been developed (for details about them, see 4.7).

More often, experiments are conducted with a group of subjects. In these cases, the sample of subjects must be a model general aggregate On which the results of the study will then be distributed. Initially, the researcher solves the problem of the number of experimental sample. Depending on the purpose of the study and the possibility of the experimenter, it can be from several subjects to several thousand people. The number of subjects in a separate group (experimental or control) varies from 1 to 100 people. For the application of statistical processing methods, the number of applicable groups of at least 30-35 people is recommended. In addition, it is advisable to increase the number of tests of at least 5-10% of the required, since some of them or their results will be "rejected" during the experiment.

To form a sample of subjects, several criteria must be taken into account.

1. Meaningful. It lies in the fact that the selection of a group of subjects must correspond to the subject and hypothesis of the study. (For example, it is clear to the group of tested children of the two-year-old children to identify the level of arbitrary memorization.) It is advisable to create ideal ideas about the object of experimental research and in the formation of a group of subjects minimally deviate from the characteristics of the ideal experimental group.

2. Criterion equivalence subjects. When forming a group of subjects, all significant characteristics of the object of study should be taken into account, the differences in the severity of which can significantly affect the dependent variable.

3. Representative criteria. A group of persons participating in the experiment must represent the whole of the general population to which the results of the experiment will be distributed. The value of the experimental sample is determined by the type of statistical measures and the selected accuracy (reliability) of the adoption or rejection of the experimental hypothesis.

Consider the strategy for selecting subjects from the population.

Random strategy It is that each member of the general population is provided with an equal chance of entering the experimental sample. For this, each individual is assigned a number, and then an experimental sample is formed using a table of random numbers. This procedure is difficult to determine, since each representative of the population of interest to the researcher must be taken into account. In addition, the random strategy gives good results when forming an experimental sample of a large volume.

Passionometric selection Used in the event that in the experimental sample, subjects must be presented with a certain set of characteristics (gender, age, level of education, etc.). The sample is designed in such a way that the subjects of each strata (layer) with specified characteristics are equally represented in it.

Polytometric random selection Combines two previous strategies. Representatives of each strata are assigned numbers and an experimental sample is randomly formed. This strategy is effective in selection of the experimental sample of a small volume.

Representative modeling It is used in the case when the researcher manages to create a model of an ideal object of experimental research. The characteristics of the real experimental sample should minimally deviate from the characteristics of the perfect experimental sample. If the researcher is not known all the characteristics of the ideal model of experimental research, the strategy applies approximate modeling. The more accurate the set of criteria describing the population to be supposed to spread the findings of the experiment, the higher its external validity.

Sometimes used as an experimental sample real groups At the same time, volunteers are either involved in the experiment, or all the subjects are attracted forced. And in that and in another case, the outer and internal validity is disturbed.

After the formation of the experimental sample, the experimenter is a study plan. Quite often, the experiment is carried out with several groups, experimental and control, which are placed in different conditions. Experimental and control groups must be equivalent at the time of the beginning of the experimental impact.

The procedure for selecting equivalent groups and subjects is called randomization. According to a number of authors, the equivalence of groups can be achieved with paired selection. In this case, the experimental and control groups are compiled from individuals equivalent to experimental by side parameters. The ideal option for paired selection is to attract twin steam. Randomization with the allocation of strata It is the selection of homogeneous subgroups in which the subjects are equalized in all characteristics, except for the researchers of additional variables. Sometimes, for the allocation of a significant additional variable, all subjects are tested and ranked in terms of its severity. Experimental and control groups are formed so that the subjects with the same or close values \u200b\u200bof the variable have got into different groups. The distribution of the subjects for the experimental and control group can be carried out and random method. As already mentioned above, with a large number of experimental sample, this method gives quite satisfactory results.

4.7. Experimental plans

Experimental plan - These are the experimental study tactics embodied in a specific experiment planning system. The main criteria for classifying plans are:

The composition of the participants (individual or group);

The number of independent variables and their levels;

Types of independent variables representation scale;

Method of collecting experimental data;

Place and conditions of the experiment;

Features of the organization of experimental impact and method of control.

Plans for groups of subjects and for one subject. All experimental plans can be divided according to the composition of the participants on plans for groups of subjects and plans for one subject.

Experiments S. group tests have the following advantages: the possibility of generalizing the results of the experiment on the population; the possibility of using intergroup comparisons; time saving; Application of statistical analysis methods. The disadvantages of this type of experimental plans include: the effect of individual differences between people on the results of the experiment; The problem of the representativeness of the experimental sample; The problem of equivalence groups of subjects.

Experiments S. one subject - This is a special case "plans with a small N ". J. Goodwin indicates the following reasons for the use of such plans: the need for individual validity, as in experiments with large N. There is a problem when the generalized data does not characterize any subject. An experiment with one subject is also carried out in unique cases, when due to a number of reasons it is impossible to attract many participants. In these cases, the purpose of the experiment is the analysis of unique phenomena and individual characteristics.

An experiment with a small N, according to D. Martin, has the following advantages: the lack of complex statistical calculations, ease of interpretation of the results, the possibility of studying unique cases, attracting one-two participants, wide possibilities of manipulation by independent variables. It is also characterized by some disadvantages, in particular the complexity of control procedures, difficulty in summarizing results; relative ineconomicity in time.

Consider plans for one subject.

Planning time series. The main indicator of the effect of an independent variable on a dependent on the implementation of such a plan is to change the nature of the responses of the test in time. Simplest strategy: scheme BUT - V. The test initially performs activities under conditions A, and then in the conditions of V. To control the "Placebo effect" scheme applies: A - B - A. ("Placebo effect" is the reaction of the tests for "empty" impacts that correspond to reactions to real influences.) In this case, the subject should not know in advance which conditions is "empty", and what real. However, these schemes do not take into account the interaction of impacts, so when planning time series, as a rule, regular alternation schemes are used (and - In A. - c), positioning equalization (and - B - B. - a) or random alternation. The use of more "long" time series increases the possibility of detecting the effect, but leads to a number of negative consequences - the fatigue of the subject, reduce control over other additional variables, etc.

Alternative impact plan It is the development of a temporary series plan. Its specificity is that impact BUT and IN Randomisually distributed over time and are presented to the subject separately. Then compare the effects from each of the effects.

Reversible plan It is used to study two alternative forms of behavior. Initially, the basic level of manifestation of both forms of behavior is recorded. Then the integrated effect consisting of a specific component for the first form of behavior and optional for the second one. After a certain time, the combination of impacts are modified. The effect of two complex effects is estimated.

Plan of increasing criteria Often used in learning psychology. Its essence is that the change in the behavior of the test in response to an increase in impact is recorded. At the same time, the following impact is presented only after the exit of the test level for the specified level of the criterion.

When conducting experiments with one subject, it should be borne in mind that the main artifacts are almost unrelated. In addition, in this case, as in any other, the influence of the installations of the experimenter and the relations, which develop between it and the subjects.

R. Gottsdanker proposes to distinguish quality and quantitative experimental plans. IN quality The plans for an independent variable are presented in a nominative scale, i.e., two or better conditions are used in the experiment.

IN quantitative The experimental plans of an independent variable are presented in interval, ranked or proportional scales, i.e., the expression levels of one or another condition are used in the experiment.

A situation is possible when one variable will be presented in a factor experiment in a quantitative, and the other is in high quality. In this case, the plan will be combined.

Intra group and intergroup experimental plans. T.V. Kornilova defines two types of experimental plans on the criterion for the number of groups and the conditions of the experiment: intragroup and intergroup. TO iNTERGRUPUE There are plans in which the impact of the options for an independent variable and the measurement of the experimental effect occur in the same group. IN intergroups The plans influence the options for an independent variable are carried out in different experimental groups.

The advantages of the intragroup plan are: fewer participants, elimination of individual differences factors, reducing the total experiment time, the possibility of proof of the statistical significance of the experimental effect. The disadvantages include the gentleness of the conditions and the manifestation of the "sequence effect".

The advantages of the intergroup plan are: the absence of the "sequence effect", the possibility of obtaining more data, reducing the time of participation in the experiment for each subject, reducing the effect of the elimination of participants in the experiment. The main disadvantage of the intergroup plan is non-equivalence of groups.

Plans with one independent variable and factor plans. According to the criterion for the number of experimental impacts, D. Martin proposes to distinguish plans with one independent variable, factor plans and plans with a series of experiments. In the plans with one independent variable The experimenter manipulates one independent variable, which may have an unlimited number of manifestations. IN factor Plans (for details about them, see p. 120) The experimenter manipulates two and more independent variables, examines all possible options for the interaction of their different levels.

Plans S. series of experiments Conducted to gradually exclude competing hypotheses. At the end of the series, the experimenter comes to the verification of one hypothesis.

Daexperimental, quasi-experimental plans and plans of true experiments. D. Campbell proposed to divide all experimental plans for groups of subjects to the following groups: Doversional, quasi-experimental and true experiments. The basis of this division is the proximity of the real experiment to the ideal. The smaller the artifacts provokes one or another plan and the stricter control of additional variables, the closer the experiment to the ideal one. DExperimental plans least take into account the requirements for the ideal experiment. V.N. Druzhinin points out that they can only serve as an illustration, in the practice of scientific research they should be avoided. Quasi-experimental plans are an attempt to take into account the realities of life when conducting empirical studies, they are specially created with a retreat from the schemes of true experiments. The researcher must be aware of the sources of artifacts - external additional variables that it cannot control. The quasi-experimental plan is applied when the use of the best plan is impossible.

Systematized features of additional, quasi-experimental plans and plans of true experiments are given in the following table.

When describing experimental plans we will use the symbolization proposed by D. Campbell: R. - randomization; X. - experimental impact; O. - Testing.

TO discperimental plans : 1) study of a single case; 2) plan with preliminary and final testing of one group; 3) Comparison of statistical groups.

For studying a single case One group is once tested after experimental impact. Sketchically, this plan can be written in the form:

Control of external variables and an independent variable is completely absent. In such an experiment, there is no material for comparison. Results can be compared only with everyday ideas about reality, they do not bear scientific information.

Plan with preliminary and final testing of one group It is often used in sociological, socio-psychological and pedagogical studies. It can be written in the form:

In this regard, there is no control group, therefore it is impossible to argue that changes in the dependent variable (the difference between O1. and O2), registered during testing, are caused by a change in an independent variable. Between the initial and final testing, other "background" events affecting the subjects along with an independent variable can also occur. This plan does not allow to control the effect of natural development and testing effect.

Comparison of statistical groups It will be more accurate to call the plan for two non-equivalent groups with testing after exposure. It can be recorded in this form:

This plan makes it possible to take into account the effect of testing, thanks to the introduction of the control group, control a number of external variables. However, it is impossible to consider the effect of natural development with it, since there is no material to compare the state of the test current at the moment with their initial state (pre-testing has not been carried out). To compare the results of the control and experimental groups, the T-criterion of Student is used. However, it should be borne in mind that differences in test results may be due to non-experimental effects, but differences in groups.

Quasi-experimental plans They are a kind of compromise between reality and the strict framework of true experiments. The following types of quasi-experimental plans in a psychological study are exist: 1) experimental plans for non-equivalent groups; 2) plans with preliminary and final testing of various randomized groups; 3) Plans for discrete time series.

Plan experiment for non-equivalent groups It is aimed at establishing causal dependence between variables, but it does not contain a procedure for adjusting groups (randomization). This plan can be submitted to the following scheme:

Two real groups are involved in the experiment in this case. Both groups are tested. Then one group is subjected to experimental impact, and the other is not. Then both groups are re-tested. The results of the first and second testing of both groups are compared, for comparison, the Student T-criterion and dispersion analysis are used. Difference O2. and O4 indicates natural development and background impact. To identify the action of an independent variable, it is necessary to compare 6 (O1 O2) and 6 (O3 O4), i.e. the values \u200b\u200bof the shifts of indicators. The significance of the differences in increases of indicators will indicate the impact of an independent variable on the dependent. This plan is similar to the plan of a true experiment for two groups with testing before and after exposure (see p. 118). The main source of artifacts is the difference in the composition of groups.

Plan with preliminary and final testing of various randomized groups It differs from the plan of a true experiment by the fact that the pre-testing passes one group, and the final is an equivalent group that has been exposed to:

The main disadvantage of this quasiexperimental plan is the inability to control the effect of the "background" - the influence of events occurring along with the experimental effects between the first and second testing.

Plans discrete time series They are divided into several species depending on the number of groups (one or several), as well as depending on the amount of experimental impacts (single or series of influences).

The discrete time series plan for one group of subjects is that the initial level of the dependent variable on the group of tests using a series of consecutive measurements is initially determined. Then the experimental impact is applied and a series of similar measurements is carried out. Compare the levels of the dependent variable before and after exposure. The scheme of this plan:

The main lack of a discrete time series plan is that it does not make it possible to separate the result of the impact of an independent variable from the influence of background events that occur during the study.

The modification of this plan is a quasi-experiment according to the time series scheme, in which the impact before the measurement alternates with the lack of impact before the measurement. Its scheme is as follows:

XO1 - O2HO3 - O4 HO5

Alternation can be regular or random. This option is suitable only in the case when the effect of exposure is reversible. When processing the data obtained in the experiment, the series is broken into two sequences and compare the results of measurements where it was an impact, with the results of measurements where it was absent. To compare the data, the T-criterion of Student is used with the number of degrees of freedom n. - 2, where n. - the number of situations of the same type.

Temporary series plans are often implemented in practice. However, when they are used, the so-called "Effect of Hottun" is often observed. For the first time he was discovered by American scientists in 1939, when a study was conducted at the Platifnun plant in Chicago. It was assumed that the change in the labor organization system will increase its productivity. However, during the experiment, any changes in the organization of labor led to an increase in its performance. As a result, it turned out that in itself participation in the experiment raised motivation to work. The subjects understood that they were personally interested, and began to work more productively. To monitor this effect, the control group should be used.

The chart of the time series for two non-equivalent groups, of which one does not receive exposure, it looks like this:

O1O2O3O4O5O6O7O8O9O10.

Such a plan allows you to monitor the effect of "background". It is usually used by researchers when studying real groups in educational institutions, clinics, in production.

Another specific plan, which is often used in psychology, is called experiment eX-POST-FACTO. It is often used in sociology, pedagogy, as well as in neuropsychology and clinical psychology. The application strategy of this plan is as follows. The experimenter itself does not affect the subjects. As an impact, there is a certain real event from their lives. The experimental group consists of "subjects" exposed, and the control group - from people who did not test it. At the same time, the groups are adjusted at the time of their condition to exposure. Then the dependent variable is tested from representatives of the experimental and control groups. The data obtained as a result of testing is compared and concludes that the impact on the further behavior of the subjects. Thus, the plan eX-POST-FACTO Imitate the experimental scheme for two groups with their equalization and testing after exposure. Its scheme is as follows:

If it is possible to achieve the equivalence of groups, then this plan becomes a true experiment plan. It is implemented in many modern studies. For example, when studying post-traumatic stress, when people who have undergone the effects of natural or technogenic catastrophes, or participants in hostilities are tested for the presence of post-traumatic syndrome, their results are compared with the results of the control group, which makes it possible to identify the mechanisms of such reactions. In neuropsychology, brain injury, defeat of certain structures, considered as "experimental impact," provide a unique opportunity to identify the localization of mental functions.

Plans of true experiments For one independent variable differ from the others as follows:

1) using the strategies for creating equivalent groups (randomization);

2) the presence of at least one experimental and one control groups;

3) Total testing and comparison of the results of groups receiving and not infected.

Consider some more experimental plans for one independent variable.

Plan for two randomized groups with testing after exposure. His scheme looks like this:

This plan is used if there is no possibility or need to pre-test. With the equality of the experimental and control groups, this plan is the best, since it allows you to control most of the sources of artifacts. The absence of pre-testing eliminates both the effect of interaction between the testing procedure and the experimental task and the test effect itself. The plan allows you to monitor the effect of the composition of groups, natural departure, the effect of background and natural development, the interaction of the group composition with other factors.

In the considered example, one level of impact of an independent variable was used. If it has several levels, the amount of experimental groups increases to the number of levels of an independent variable.

Plan for two randomized groups with preliminary and final testing. The plan scheme looks like this:

R O1 x O2

This plan is applied if there are doubts about randomization results. The main source of artifacts is the interaction of testing and experimental impact. In reality, it is also necessary to deal with the effect of substantiveness of testing. Therefore, the best is considered to test members of the experimental and control groups in random order. The presentation of the experimental impact is also better to carry out in random order. D. Campbell notes the need to control the "intragroup events". This experimental plan is well controlled by the effect of the background and the effect of natural development.

When processing data, parametric criteria are commonly used. t. and F. (for data in the interval). Calculate three values \u200b\u200bT: 1) between O1 and O2; 2) between O3 and O4; 3) between O2. and O4. The hypothesis of the significance of the effect of an independent variable to the dependent can be taken in the event that two conditions are performed: 1) the differences between O1. and O2. meaningful, and between O3. and O4. insignificant and 2) differences between O2.and O4. meaningful. Sometimes it is more convenient to compare not absolute values, but the magnitude of the growth of indicators b (1 2) and b (3 4). These values \u200b\u200bare also compared by the T-criterion of Student. In the event of the significance of the differences, an experimental hypothesis is taken on the effect of an independent variable on the dependent.

Solomon plan Represents the combination of the two previous plans. For its implementation, two experimental (E) and two control (K) groups are needed. His scheme looks like this:

With this plan, you can control the effect of the interaction of pre-testing and the effect of experimental impact. The effect of experimental impact is detected when comparing the indicators: O1. and O2; O2 and O4; O5 and O6; O5 and O3. Comparison O6, O1 and O3 allows you to identify the impact of the factor of natural development and background impacts on the dependent variable.

Now consider the plan for one independent variable and several groups.

Plan for three randomized groups and three levels of an independent variable It is used in cases where it is necessary to identify quantitative dependencies between independent and dependent variables. His scheme looks like this:

When implementing this plan, each group is placed only one level of an independent variable. If necessary, it is possible to increase the number of experimental groups in accordance with the number of levels of an independent variable. All the above statistical methods can be applied to process data obtained using such an experimental plan.

Factory experimental plans Used to test complex hypotheses about the relationships between variables. In a factor experiment, two types of hypotheses are checked: 1) hypothesis about the separate influence of each of the independent variables; 2) hypothesis about the interaction of variables. The factor plan is that all levels of independent variables combined with each other. The number of experimental groups is equal to the number of combinations.

Factor plan for two independent variables and two levels (2 x 2).This is the easiest of factor plans. His scheme looks like this.

This plan also identifies the effect of the effect of two independent variables per depending ones. The experimenter combines possible variables and levels. Sometimes four independent randomized experimental groups are used. For processing results, a dispersion analysis on Fisher is applied.

There are more complex versions of a factor plan: 3 x 2 and 3 x 3, etc. Supplement of each level of an independent variable increases the number of experimental groups.

Latin square. It is a simplification of the full plan for three independent variables having two or more levels. The principle of the Latin square is that two levels of different variables are found in the experimental plan only once. Thereby, the number of groups and experimental sample as a whole are significantly reduced.

For example, for three independent variables (L, M, N)with three levels each (1, 2, 3 and N (A, B, C)) Plan according to the Latin Square method will look like this.

In this case, the level of the third independent variable (A, B, C) It occurs in each row and in each column one time. Combining results on rows, columns and levels, you can reveal the effect of each of the independent variables on the dependent, as well as the degree of pairwise interaction of variables. Application of Latin letters A, B, FROM To indicate the levels of the third variable, traditionally, therefore the method and received the name "Latin Square".

Greco-Latin Square. This plan is applied if it is necessary to investigate the effect of four independent variables. It is based on a Latin square for three variables, while the Greek letter denotes the levels of the fourth variable to each Latin Plan group of the Plan. The scheme for a plan with four independent variables, each of which has three levels, will look like this:

For the processing of data obtained in the Greco-Latin square plan, the dispersion analysis method for Fisher is applied.

The main problem that factor plans can be solved is to determine the interaction of two or more variables. This task cannot be solved by applying several conventional experiments with one independent variable. In fact, instead of attempts to "clean" the experimental situation from additional variables (with a threat to external validity), the experimenter brings it to reality, introducing some additional variables into the discharge of independent. In this case, the analysis of links between the studied features allows you to identify hidden structural factors, on which the parameters of the measured variable depend.

4.8. Correlation research

The theory of correlation was developed by the English mathematician K. Pearson. The strategy for conducting such a study is that there is no managed impact on the object. The correlation plan is not relieved. The researcher puts forward a hypothesis about the presence of a statistical connection between several mental properties of the individual. In this case, the assumption of causal dependence is not discussed.

Correlation It is called a study conducted to confirm or refutate the hypothesis about the statistical connection between several (two or more) variables. In psychology, mental properties, processes, states, etc. may be as variables.

Correlations. "Correlation" in direct translation means the ratio. If the change in one variable is accompanied by a change in the other, they indicate the correlation of these variables. The presence of a correlation of two variables is not evidence of the presence of causal dependencies between them, but makes it possible to nominate such a hypothesis. The lack of correlation makes it possible to refute the hypothesis about the causal relationship of variables.

There are several types of correlation ties:

Direct correlation (the level of one variable directly corresponds to the level of another variable);

The correlation caused by the third variable (the level of one variable corresponds to the level of another variable due to the fact that both of these variables are due to the third, common variable);

Random correlation (no variable);

The correlation due to the inhomogeneity of the sample (if the sample consists of two inhomogeneous groups, a correlation bond can be obtained that does not exist in the general population).

Correlation bonds are the following types:

- positive correlation (increasing the level of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the level of another variable);

- negative correlation (the increase in the level of one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the level of another);

- zero correlation (indicates the absence of communication of variables);

- Nonlinear communication (within certain limits, the increase in the level of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the level of another, and with other parameters - on the contrary. Most psychological variables have non-linear communication).

Planning a correlation research. The correlation plan is a type of quasi-experimental plan in the absence of an independent variable impact on the dependent. Correlation study is divided into a series of independent measurements in the subject group. When simple Correlation Research Group Uniform. When comparative Correlation Research We have several subgroups that differ in one or more criteria. The results of such measurements give a matrix of the form R X O. Processed correlation data processed by calculating correlations on rows or by columns of the matrix. The correlation on the rows gives a comparison of the subjects. The correlation of columns gives information about the communication of the measured variables. Temporary correlations are often detected, i.e. change the structure of correlations in time.

The following types of correlation research are considered below.

Comparison of two groups. It is used to establish similarities or differences in two natural or randomized groups by severity of one or another parameter. The average results in two groups are compared using the Student T-criterion. If necessary, a Fisher T-Criterion can also be used to compare dispersions of the indicator in two groups (see 7.3).

One-dimensional study of one group in different conditions. The plan of this study is close to the experimental. But in the case of a correlation research, we are not managed by an independent variable, but only stating the change in the behavior of the individual in different conditions.

Correlated study in pairwise equivalent groups. This plan is used in the study of the twins by the method of internal correlations. The twin method is based on the following provisions: monosigitious twin genotypes are 100% similar, and dialicate twins - by 50%, the development environment for both dialing and monosigital pairs is the same. Diavigot and monosigital twins are broken into groups: each is one twin from the pair. In the twins of both groups, the parameter is interested in the researcher. Then the correlations between the parameters are calculated. (ABOUT-Korption) and between twins (R-correlation). Comparing the internal correlations of monosigitious and dialicate twins, one can identify the shares of the environment and genotype to develop one or another sign. If the correlation of monosigital twins is reliably higher than the correlation of dialicate twins, then we can talk about the existing genetic determination of the trait, otherwise they speak of the media determination.

Multidimensional correlation research. It is carried out to test the hypothesis about the connection of several variables. An experimental group is selected, which is tested by a specific program consisting of multiple tests. These studies are recorded in the "raw" data table. This table is then processed, linear correlation coefficients are calculated. Correlations are evaluated for statistical differences.

Structural correlation research. The researcher identifies the difference in the level of correlation dependences between the same indicators measured from representatives of different groups.

Longitudinal correlation examination. It is built according to the time series plan with the group testing at specified periods of time. Unlike the simple Longituda, the researcher is interested in changes not so much variable themselves, how many connections between them.